Spend much of the day resting or sleeping (to conserve energy), as well as foraging and eating (to gain energy) (Schaller et al. 1985, Ch. 5; Garshelis 2009b; Swaisgood et al. 2020; Bi et al. 2021)
Lots of bamboo required to meet a panda’s daily energy needs
Active for about 13 to 14 hours per day, or about 50 to 60% of each 24-hour period (Garshelis 2009b; Pan et al. 2014; J. Zhang et al. 2015; Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Mothers with young cubs much less active; spend considerable time at den site (Schaller et al. 1985; Zhu et al. 2001)
Time of day
Active day and night (Schaller et al. 1985; J. Zhang et al. 2015; Pu et al. 2024)
Rest for 2 to 4 hours at a time, between peak foraging bouts (Garshelis 2009b; Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Usually, 1 to 3 peaks in activity per day, depending on location (Schaller et al. 1985; Pan et al. 2014; J. Zhang et al. 2015; Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Seasonal/annual patterns
Solar radiation, season, and weather also influence activity levels (Schaller et al. 1985; J. Zhang et al. 2015)
Most active during spring (mating, foraging on new bamboo shoots) and winter (not migrating or using maternity dens) (Pan et al. 2014; J. Zhang et al. 2015; Zhang, Hull, Ouyang, He, et al. 2017; Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Least active during summer and autumn [in Qinling, Wolong] (Pan et al. 2014; J. Zhang et al. 2015; Swaisgood et al. 2020)
In winter, seek shelter from snow and cold conditions in rocky areas, caves, and hollow trees (Garshelis 2009b)
Do not hibernate, unlike other bear species (Garshelis 2009b; J. Zhang et al. 2015)
Food available year-round (Garshelis 2009b)
From bamboo, cannot store enough body fat for hibernation (Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Movements and Dispersal
Home ranges
Home range size
Small in size, likely to help conserve energy (Schaller et al. 1985; Hull et al. 2015)
On average, about 7 km2 (Connor et al. 2016; Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Range: about 3 to 30 km2 (Connor et al. 2016; Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Sex differences
Male home ranges about 1.5 times larger than those of females (reviewed by Connor et al. 2016 and Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Home ranges of breeding females shrink dramatically when caring for cubs (Pan et al. 2014, Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Also influenced by season, habitat, food availability, social interactions, etc. (eg, Schaller et al. 1985; Zhang et al. 2014; Connor et al. 2016; Wang et al. 2023)
Home range areas
Extent and overlap
Not territorial (Schaller et al. 1985; Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Home ranges of individual pandas overlap by about 10 to 35% (Hull et al. 2015; Connor et al. 2016)—but direct encounters between pandas are rare (Wei et al. 2015)
Amount of social interaction during non-breeding season seems to vary (eg, Zhang et al. 2014; Hull et al. 2015) and may depend on family relationships (eg, Pan et al. 2014; Connor et al. 2023)
Spacing maintained primarily through marking at communal “scent stations” and along travel routes (eg, Schaller et al. 1985; Swaisgood et al. 1999; Swaisgood et al. 2004; Wang et al. 2023)
Female home ranges typically have a more stable and centralized “home base,” overlapping very little with other pandas (Schaller et al. 1985; Connor et al. 2016; Swaisgood et al. 2020; M. Wang et al. 2023)
Male home ranges have a greater amount of overlap with other male and female pandas, and males move more widely (Schaller et al. 1985; Pan et al. 2014; Connor et al. 2016; M. Wang et al. 2023)
Likely reflects their mate-search strategy (eg, Swaisgood et al. 2020)
An individual’s home range boundaries may shift across years (Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Core areas
Intensively forage on bamboo in small core areas within their home range (Zhang et al. 2014; Hull et al. 2015; W. Wei et al. 2015; Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Most 1 km2 (0.4 mi2) or less in size (Hull et al. 2015; Connor et al. 2016)
Combined, make up about 20 to 35% of a panda’s total home range area (Hull et al. 2015)
Move to a new core area frequently, with some inidividuals visiting many different core areas each year (Hull et al. 2015; Ron Swaisgood, personal communication, 2025)
Return to core areas, sometimes soon and sometimes after being away a long time (more than half the year), indicating strong spatial memory (Hull et al. 2015; Swaisgood et al. 2020)
A male’s core range may overlap that of several females, but cores areas used by pandas of the same sex infrequently overlap (Yong et al. 2004; Garshelis 2009b; Hull et al. 2015)
Reduces direct contact among individuals (Schaller et al. 1985)
Move 300 to 600 m (0.2 to 0.4 mi) per day, on average (Schaller et al. 1985; Yong et al. 2004; Pan et al. 2014; synthesized by Connor et al. 2016)
Make longer, straight-line movements when moving between habitat patches (eg, Zhang et al. 2014; F. Wei, Swaisgood, et al. 2015)
Foraging patches often closely spaced (Schaller et al. 1985)
Generally, more daily movement in spring (mating period, foraging on bamboo shoots) and winter (when foraging for scarcer food) (Schaller et al. 1985; Yong et al. 2004; Zhang et al. 2014; Connor et al. 2016)
Seasonal movements
Use distinct seasonal ranges (Pan et al. 2014; Zhang et al. 2014; Hull et al. 2016; Connor et al. 2016; M. Wang et al. 2023)
Migrate to find food (growing, nutrient-rich bamboo) and preferred temperature conditions (Pan et al. 2014; Zhang et al. 2014; Nie, Zhang, et al. 2015; M. Wang et al. 2023)
Pandas migrate to either lower or higher elevations, which varies by region (summarized by Connor et al. 2016; Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Qionglai Mountains (Wolong): migrate to lower elevations during spring for bamboo shoots (eg, Schaller et al. 1985)
Qinling Mountains: migrate to higher elevations during summer for bamboo forage (eg, Pan et al. 2014; Zhang et al. 2014; Wang et al. 2023)
Travel time
May take only a few days to move up/down a slope (if straight-line/directional), or take place over several weeks (if panda takes a winding/meandering route) (Yong et al. 2004; Pan et al. 2014; Zhang et al. 2014; Wang et al. 2023)
Time taken also affected by whether a female is pregnant or caring for cubs (eg, Pan et al. 2014)
Dispersal
Adults of both sexes settle away from their birthplace, separating their home ranges from habitat areas used by their mothers (Zhan et al. 2007; Zhang et al. 2014; Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Juveniles and subadults often remain in home ranges near that of their mothers (Pan et al. 2014; Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Males tend to establish home ranges near their birthplace (Zhan et al. 2007; Pan et al. 2014)
Females disperse farther away than males, likely as a strategy to avoid inbreeding with fathers and male siblings (Zhan et al. 2007; Ron Swaisgood, personal communication, 2025)
Individuals sometimes return to previous home range areas after making long movements, if they cannot establish a new range (see discussion in Connor et al. 2016)
Social Behavior
Live singly but social
Females and males live singly, except during mating and cub-rearing periods (Brambell 1976; Chorn and Hoffman 1978; Schaller et al. 1985)
Communicate frequently but without much close contact, and primarily through odors/smell (Swaisgood et al. 1999; Swaisgood et al. 2002; Swaisgood et al. 2004)
Growing evidence that giant pandas “socialize at a distance” outside of the breeding season (Hull et al. 2015; Zhou et al. 2022; Connor et al. 2023)
Appear to have loose social groups or community networks—in some cases, networks containing relatives or possibly pandas that have home ranges near one another (Zhou et al. 2022; Connor et al. 2023)
Community members may avoid one another during the breeding season, perhaps to prevent inbreeding or male aggression towards a female’s cubs (Connor et al. 2023)
Early evidence suggests male giant pandas have more social associations than female pandas (Zhou et al. 2022)
Hull et al. (2015) reported subadult and adult pandas spending time near one another from late summer through fall
Communication
Olfactory communication
Primary mode of communication (eg, Kleiman 1983; Schaller et al. 1985; Swaisgood et al. 2004; Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Odors influence many aspects of giant panda biology, including movements and space use, social behavior, and reproduction (Schaller et al. 1985; Swaisgood et al. 2004, 2020)
Scent marking
Both males and females mark with urine and sticky secretions from glands located near their anus and genitals (Morris and Morris 1966; Kleiman and Collins 1972; Kleiman et al. 1979; Schaller et al. 1985; Swaisgood et al. 2004)
Glandular secretions persist longer in the environment (Swaisgood et al. 2004; W. Zhou et al. 2019), whereas urine is detectable over a larger area and requires less energy to produce (W. Zhou et al. 2019; Hou et al. 2021)
Males scent mark year-round (Yonggang Nie, Swaisgood, Zhang, Hu, et al. 2012)
Females mainly scent mark during the mating season (Lindburg et al. 2001; Yonggang Nie, Swaisgood, Zhang, Hu, et al. 2012)
Mark trees, rocks, logs, stumps, etc. (W. Zhou et al. 2019; Hou et al. 2021; Y. Wang, Swaisgood, et al. 2023)
Choose sites where odors easily detectable and long-lasting (Yonggang Nie, Swaisgood, Zhang, Hu, et al. 2012; Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Take into account tree size, bark texture, distance to nearby trails and other “scent stations,” and open space around a marking site (Yonggang Nie, Swaisgood, Zhang, Hu, et al. 2012; Hou et al. 2021; Y. Wang, Swaisgood, et al. 2023)
Use a variety of body postures to deposit odors (Morris and Morris 1966; Kleiman and Collins 1972; Kleiman et al. 1979; Schaller et al. 1985; Swaisgood et al. 2000; White et al. 2002; Swaisgood et al. 2004; Hou et al. 2021)
Back up to a surface
Raise a hindleg
Squat
Raise hindquarters, or “headstand position” (adult males only, urine only)
Thought to convey information about a male’s competitive ability (higher = larger body size, more competitive), or intent to defend territory or mates (Swaisgood et al. 2000; White et al. 2002)
Also rub cheeks, neck and shoulders, and haunches on rocks and other firm surfaces (Kleiman et al. 1979; Swaisgood et al. 2004)
Odors build up over time (eg, Kleiman et al. 1979; Swaisgood et al. 2004) and are highly noticeable to other pandas (Y. Wang, Swaisgood, et al. 2023)
Sometimes referred to as community “bulletin boards” (Swaisgood et al. 2004)
Scent anointing
Roll on ground and rub soil, grass, food, or scents from other pandas; use their paws to rub the odors into fur, particularly on their head, shoulders, and back (Kleiman and Collins 1972; Kleiman et al. 1979; Swaisgood et al. 2000; Charlton et al. 2020)
Males, especially, may anoint fur with strong-smelling or novel odors (see Charlton et al. 2020 for discussion)
Information encoded in chemical cues
Pandas can detect age, sex, and reproductive condition of the panda who deposited their scent (Swaisgood et al. 2000; Swaisgood et al. 2002; White et al. 2003; Swaisgood et al. 2004; White et al. 2004; Yuan et al. 2004)
Chemical composition differs by sex (female, male) and season (nonbreeding, breeding) (Yuan et al. 2004; W. Zhou et al. 2019)
Able to distinguish individual identities of other pandas (Swaisgood et al. 1999; Swaisgood et al. 2004)
A mothers and cub can identify each other’s scents (Swaisgood et al. 2004)
Can tell their relatives (kin) apart from unrelated individuals (Gilad et al. 2016)
Functions
Prevent competition for resources and conflict/aggression (White et al. 2002)
Convey information about reproductive maturity, breeding status, and competitive ability (Swaisgood et al. 2004)
Possibly to defend territory (males), mates (males), or rare denning sites (females only) (Swaisgood et al. 2004)
Vocal communication
Vocalize infrequently, except during the mating season and early cub development (Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Calls typically associated with courtship or mother–cub interactions (Charlton et al. 2009; Owen et al. 2016a; Charlton et al. 2018; Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Adult vocalizations
More than 10 distinctive vocal and non-vocal sounds identified for adult pandas, including bleats, chirps, moans, barks, roars, honks, squeals, growls, etc. (eg, Kleiman and Peters 1990; Peters 1985; Schaller et al. 1985; Lindburg et al. 2001; Charlton et al. 2011; Charlton et al. 2018)
High-pitched bleats and chirps associated with attracting mates and other social interactions (Kleiman et al. 1979; Kleiman and Peters 1990; Swaisgood et al. 2000; Lindburg et al. 2001; Charlton et al. 2010; Charlton et al. 2015; Charlton et al. 2018; Charlton et al. 2019)
Lower-pitched moans and barks more associated with aggression or ambivalent/avoidant behavior (Kleiman et al. 1979; Peters 1985; Charlton et al. 2018; Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Breeding calls
Receptive females make distinctive bleats and chirps when ready to mate, advertising to males (Kleiman and Peters 1990; Swaisgood et al. 2000; Charlton et al. 2010; Charlton et al. 2018)
Male bleats may convey information about their competitiveness and quality as potential mates (Charlton et al. 2011; Charlton et al. 2015)
May facilitate mating by communicating nonaggressive intent (important in this solitary species) (Charlton et al. 2015; Charlton et al. 2018)
May influence female mate choice and avoidance behavior by other breeding males (Charlton et al. 2009; Charlton et al. 2011; Charlton et al. 2015)
Visual communication
Less important to pandas than communication through odors and vocalizations (Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Also not as well studied (Swaisgood et al. 2020)
Behavioral displays
Signal each other with body postures (Kleiman et al. 1979; Schaller et al. 1985)
Often accompanied by vocalizations
Few conspicuous facial expressions (Kleiman et al. 1979)
Some movement of ears and mouth (Schaller et al. 1985)
Emotional states and intentions subtle (Kleiman et al. 1979)
Play/non-aggression
Elicit play with other pandas by rolling and somersaulting (Wilson and Kleiman 1974)
Function of dark eye patches and ears not clear but likely involved in communication; more research needed (Caro et al. 2017; Ron Swaisgood, personal communication, 2025)
Might be used to visually communicate with other pandas and/or other animals (Schaller et al. 1985; Schaller 1994; Caro et al. 2017)
Emphasis on the eyes may signal other pandas to keep away (mimics a stare–threat) (Schaller 1994)
Head markings might also be used by pandas to recognize one another (Dungl et al. 2008; Caro et al. 2017)
Environmental marking
Some visual marks used in tandem with olfactory marking (see Olfactory communication) (Schaller et al. 1985)
Behaviors
Strip tree bark (using teeth or claws) (Schaller et al. 1985)
Leave claw marks on surfaces (Schaller et al. 1985)
Paw ground surface, scraping away sod or snow (Schaller et al. 1985)
Foot scraping possibly used by adult males to leave scent marks or visual marks, often in an aggressive context (Swaisgood et al. 2000)
Observed on raised ground and at base of trees (Schaller et al. 1985)
Tactile communication
Most common during breeding period (Kleiman et al. 1979)
Biting, pawing, swatting, pouncing, pushing (Kleiman et al. 1979; Schaller et al. 1985)
Agonistic Behavior & Defense
Defensive behaviors
Avoiding or running away from danger/rivals (Schaller et al. 1985; Nie et al. 2012)
Climb trees to avoid predators, and for females, to avoid male suitors (Garshelis 2009b; Nie et al. 2012)
Aggressive behaviors
(Schaller et al. 1985)
Swatting with forepaws
Lunging
Grappling
Biting
Other Behaviors
Play
Common in young pandas (Chorn and Hoffman 1978)
Infrequently observed among pandas in wild populations, except between cubs and their mothers (Schaller et al. 1985)
Play sometimes initiated by mother (Snyder et al. 2003)
Paw, swat, and pounce at playmate (Kleiman et al. 1979)
Roll, tumble, somersault, and twist body (Kleiman and Collins 1972; Wilson and Kleiman 1974; Kleiman et al. 1979)
In zoos, young pandas also observed rolling in dirt and bathing in water (Chorn and Hoffman 1978)
Rolling in manure
Observed to roll in fresh horse manure and rub horse manure on body, which increases tolerance to cold during winter [Qinling] (Zhou et al. 2020)
Interspecies Interactions
Non-competitive associations
Occur in same habitat areas as takin, wild boar, and Asiatic black bear (Wang et al. 2015)
Habitat overlap among giant pandas, and Himalayan red panda (Ailurus fulgens) and Sichuan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellanae) (Zhang, Hull, Ouyang, Li, et al. 2017; Liu et al. 2023)
Maternal den sites used as shelter by hooved ungulates, such as Chinese muntjac, wild boar, golden takin, and Chinese goral (Lai et al. 2020)
Competitive associations
Direct interactions not well understood
Compete for space and bamboo with free-ranging livestock (eg, Hull, Zhang, et al. 2014; Wang et al. 2015; B.V. Li et al. 2017; Wei et al. 2018)
