Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) Fact Sheet: Behavior & Ecology

General

• Activity peaks
  • Generally, 2 to 3 (sometimes 4) per day (e.g., McKay 1973; Vancuylenberg 1977; Santiapilli et al. 1984; Katugaha et al. 1999)
    • Often 1 or 2 more active morning periods, and 1 to 3 more active afternoon/evening periods
    • Not uniform across range
      • Timing may be influenced by available resources, location, season, social dynamics, or other factors
• Nighttime activity
  • Difficult to study; consistent patterns not well known
  • In winter, can be primarily nocturnal, and more active at dawn and dusk (Gray and Phan 2011; Thapa et al. 2019)
  • May be more active at night where humans are present (humans more active during the day) (Fernando et al. 2023; Anatasia Madsen, personal communication, 2011)
    • Some studies show elephants use cover (e.g., forest habitat) before moving into crop fields at night
      • Also observed in African elephants, e.g., Hahn et al. (2023)
    • Also see Human–elephant conflict
  • Activity seems more nocturnal outside of protected areas (e.g., de Silva, A.D. Ranjeewa, Kryazhimskiy, et al. 2011)

Feeding and drinking

• Daily foraging
  • Wakeful activity dominated by foraging (McKay 1973; Baskaran et al. 2010; Wittemyer 2011)
  • Spend roughly 60 to 80% (up to 90%) of their wakeful time feeding (McKay 1973; Vancuylenberg 1977; Sivaganesan and Johnsingh 1995; Baskaran et al. 2010)
    • 17 to 19 hours per day [Sri Lanka] (Vancuylenberg 1977; Sukumar 1989; Wittemyer 2011)
    • Sukumar (2006) states 12 to 18 hours per day
  • Often 2 feeding peaks in activity every 24 hours (McKay 1973; Shoshani and Eisenberg 1982; Baskaran et al. 2010; Nowak 2018)
  • Often move and feed during the morning, evening, and at night (Nowak 2018)
  • Drink at least once a day (Shoshani and Eisenberg 1982; Nowak 2018)
• Seasonal changes
  • During the dry season, spend less time feeding and more time resting (McKay 1973; Baskaran et al. 2010)

Resting and sleeping

• Resting behavior
  • Often rest in the middle of the day and during warm weather (Wittemyer 2011)
    • Seek shady, sheltered forest habitats (Vancuylenberg 1977)
  • Only sleep a few hours each night, often late at night (Wittemyer 2011)
• Resting position
  • Adults rest while standing (McKay 1973)
    • Sometimes lean against a tree, rock, etc.
  • Calves more commonly rest lying down than adults do (Stokes et al. 2017)

Movements, general

• Move long distances to find food and shelter (Williams et al. 2020)
  • Typically move to new feeding areas every few days (Shoshani and Eisenberg 1982; Nowak 2018)
• Linear movements
  • 10 to 150 km (6 to 93 mi) per day (Williams et al. 2020)
• Use of protected habitat
  • Varies with location, population size, sex, etc.
  • Some adult females may be long-term residents of protected areas (Madsen et al. 2022)
  • However, breeding males (musth males are highly mobile) and adult females commonly do not remain within protected areas boundaries (e.g., Baskaran and Desai 1996; Fernando et al. 2008; Madsen et al. 2022)

Home range

• Show fidelity to a well-defined home range, though areas used within their home range change daily and seasonally [India, Sri Lanka] (McKay 1973; Baskaran et al. 1995; Baskaran and Desai 1996; Fernando et al. 2008)
  • Walk the same trails and return to the same drinking spots over time (McKay 1973)
  • May return to the same foraging areas after plants regrow (English, Ancrenaz, et al. 2014)
• Home ranges of different individuals overlap; not territorial (McKay 1973; Fernando and Lande 2000; Fernando et al. 2008; Nowak 2018)
• Home range sizes vary widely—can range from several hundred to several thousand square kilometers (Sukumar 1989; Baskaran and Desai 1996; Alfred et al. 2012; Nowak 2018; Rahmi et al. 2023)
  • Size and extent influenced by many factors: climate, food and water availability, terrain, access to mates, extent of human disturbance, etc. (Sukumar 2006; Fernando et al. 2008; Williams et al. 2008; Wittemyer 2011; Fernando 2015; Nowak 2018; Williams et al. 2020)
• Movements of males
  • Musth males range over considerably larger areas than non-musth males, likely to search for mates (Fernando et al. 2008; Madsen et al. 2022)
    • Outside of breeding periods, male home ranges typically smaller than those of females in groups (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972)
  • Activity centers of males tend to shift more than those of females in groups (Goswami et al. 2019)
  • Fernando et al. (2021) found that males living singly and all-male groups tolerate areas (conditions) near dense human populations better than females in groups

Migration

• Formerly, extensive seasonal migrations (Olivier 1978c, cited by Shoshani and Eisenberg 1982; Nowak 2018)
  • Asian elephant’s ability to migrate reduced over time by human agriculture and land development
  • Today, fragmented habitat, roads, fencing, and other barriers (installed to protect villages and crops) impede elephant movements (e.g., Menon and Tiwari 2019)
• Some seasonal movements still occur in southern India and Sri Lanka (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972; McKay 1973; de Silva, Ranjeewa, et al. 2011; Fernando 2015; Wilson et al. 2015; Nowak 2018)
• Unclear if Asian elephants show general seasonal ranging patterns (across populations) (Fernando et al. 2008)
  • Migration behavior may, in part, depend on available water in a region during a dry season (Santiapillai et al. 1984; Fernando et al. 2008; de Silva, A.D. Ranjeewa, et al. 2011; Nandini et al. 2018) or timing of rains (e.g., Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972)
• In some locations, elephants may move across international boundaries (e.g., Choudhury 1999)
  • Makes management more complex (e.g., need for binational cooperation, difficulty in assessing population sizes accurately)
• 2020–2021: public/media attention on migration of 2 Asian elephant herds in southwest China (Campos‐Arceiz et al. 2021; Lin et al. 2023)
  • Herds moved hundreds of kilometers and into densely human-populated areas
  • See Wang et al. (2021) and related news stories (example story)

Dispersal

• Males leave natal herd during adolescence (Sukumar 1989; Desai and Johnsingh 1995; Vidya and Sukumar 2005b; Ahlering et al. 2011)
  • Likely helps prevent inbreeding and enhances gene flow, benefiting population health (Williams et al. 2020)
  • See Male social associations
• Young females remain with natal group (Nowak 2018)

Social structure

• Well-networked societies (e.g., de Silva, Ranjeewa, et al. 2011; de Silva and Wittemyer 2012; Nowak 2018)
  • Individuals connected at the population level (Wittemyer 2011; de Silva and Wittemyer 2012)
  • Composition of small groups can change on the order of days, but larger group cohesiveness maintained over longer timescales (de Silva, Ranjeewa, et al. 2011; Nandini et al. 2017)
  • More fluid and less interconnected than societies of African elephants
• Females live in small (but fluid) groups with their calves, though often observed singly (Santiapillai et al. 1984; White et al. 1993; Fernando and Lande 2000; Vidya and Sukumar 2005b; Ahlering et al. 2011; de Silva, Ranjeewa, et al. 2011; de Silva and Wittemyer 2012; Nandini et al. 2018; Nowak 2018)
  • No clear dominance hierarchies or matriarchal leaders, unlike in African savannah elephants (de Silva et al. 2017)
  • Mix of strong social associations (long-term companions) and weaker, more ephemeral associations (individuals they socialize with less often) (de Silva, Ranjeewa, et al. 2011)
  • Companions change over time (de Silva, Ranjeewa, et al. 2011)
    • Adult females maintain at least a few long-term companions, even if they spend time apart for one or several seasons
• Unrelated females reintroduced to wild populations may successfully form social groups (that change over time) (see Thitaram et al. 2015)
• Males of reproductive age and social status associate with female herds mainly for breeding (when one or more females in estrus) (Santiapillai et al. 1984; Nowak 2018)
  • Younger males may join an all-male group or live singly
  • See Male social associations, below

Male social associations

(Nowak 2018, and as noted)

• Males leave natal herd during adolescence (about 10 to 15 years old) to either join a small all-male group or live singly (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972; McKay 1973; Kurt et al. 1974; Santiapillai et al. 1984; Desai and Johnsingh 1995; Vidya and Sukumar 2005b; Srinivasaiah et al. 2019; Keerthipriya et al. 2021; LaDue, Vandercone, et al. 2022a)
  • LaDue, Vandercone, et al. (2022b) found that males between 20 and 30 years of age tended to associate with the most other males (except during musth)
• Some males alternate between residing in all-male groups (when not breeding) and associating with female groups (during musth) (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972; Keerthipriya et al. 2020)
  • High tolerance for males in their group outside of breeding (musth) periods (Nowak 2018)
• Associations among males generally more short-term than those of female groups (Katugaha et al. 1999; Srinivasaiah et al. 2019)
• Effects of habitat fragmentation
  • In India, all-male groups more frequently observed where forest habitats are fragmented (Srinivasaiah et al. 2019)
    • Males thought to adopt higher-risk foraging strategies (feeding on crops) for better nutrition

Group size

• Small group sizes compared to African elephants (Vidya and Sukumar 2005a; de Silva et al., 2010; de Silva and Wittemyer 2012)
  • Varies by location, season, breeding status, other social or demographic factors
  • Also influenced by seasonal resource availability (e.g., Nandini et al. 2017) and habitat openness (e.g., Santiapillai et al. 1984)
• Social associations of adult females and their calves are fluid and variable (e.g., Katugaha et al. 1999; Vidya and Sukumar 2005b; de Silva, Ranjeewa, et al. 2011, “The dynamics of social networks…”)
  • “Group” size can be as small as a mother–calf pair or as large as several females and their offspring (up to roughly 20 individuals)
    • Smaller groups associate into larger, loosely connected communities over time, and are well-networked at the population level; see discussion of fission–fusion social structure, above
• All-male groups
  • About 2 to 7 individuals, on average (McKay 1973; Katugaha et al. 1999; LaDue, Vandercone, et al. 2022a)

Vocalizations

• Use a mix of higher and low-frequency sounds (ones that humans cannot hear) (Payne et al. 1986; Langbauer 2000)
  • Low-frequency calls thought to be used to maintain contact between individuals or groups over long distances (de Silva 2010)
    • Similar to African elephants
  • Infrasonic calls thought to be important
    • May be blocked by dense forest vegetation
• Large repertoire of vocalizations
  • de Silva (2010) identified 14 different vocalizations
    • Most common: “growls” and “rumbles”
    • Comparable to vocalizations in African elephants
    • McKay (1973) similarly described 10 types of vocalizations
• “Growls”
  • Non-aggressive social call, frequently given while on the move or if disturbed (Eisenberg et al. 1971; de Silva 2010)
  • Given often, sometimes by several individuals (de Silva 2010)
  • A quiet call (to human ears) (McKay 1973; de Silva 2010)
  • May have infrasonic components (Langbauer 2000)
• “Rumbles”
  • Louder than growls (de Silva 2010)
  • High diversity in sound structure (Nair et al. 2009)
  • Appear to be contact calls, or to adjust spacing between individuals or groups (Nair et al. 2009; de Silva 2010)
  • Given by 2 or more individuals in a continuous chorus (de Silva 2010)
  • Transmitted as sound through the air (O’Connell-Rodwell et al. 2000; Nowak 2018) or as silent infrasonic sounds (Payne et al. 1986)
• Trumpeting (McKay 1973; Nair et al. 2009; de Silva 2010)
  • Loud call thought to indicate alarm, surprise, or social excitement (such as during play)
    • Elephants may show threat behaviors (e.g., charging, throwing objects) while trumpeting
  • Trumpet calls given by female elephants are individually distinct and may help females to recognize one another (Fuchs et al. 2021)
• “Barks,” “squeaks,” “roars,” etc. (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972; de Silva 2010; Beeck et al. 2021)
  • Given in a number of contexts: when alarmed, excited, or exhibiting aggressive behaviors, or during group movements
  • “Barks” often directed at calves
  • “Squeaks” sometimes directed at humans or given when females approached by a male in musth
  • “Roars” often given when disturbed by other animals, plus several other contexts (Nair et al. 2009)
• Mating vocalizations
  • “Musth chirp–rumble”
    • Given during courtship/guarding of females and when competing for mates
      • Advertises a male’s dominance status (Langbauer 2000)
    • Given by a male during courtship bouts, sometimes continuously for several hours (de Silva 2010)

• “Estrus rumbles”
  • Females in estrus emit infrasonic call to attract males (Langbauer 2000)
    • For long-distance communication
    • Call structure helps males judge direction and distance to travel to locate the female
    • Each rumble contains rising and falling frequencies
    • Call unit lasts about 5 seconds but may repeat up to 30 minutes
  • Not as well studied in Asian elephants as for African elephants
• A number of other calls for juveniles and adults: see Nair et al. (2009), de Silva (2010), Nowak (2018)
• Other vocal abilities
  • Vocal imitation
    • One zoo-housed individual, Koshik, spontaneously learned to imitate human words and sounds (in Korean) (Stoeger et al. 2012)
      • Required intentional control of trunk and vocal tract
    • Vocal learning may be important to individuals living in the wild (Shermin de Silva, personal communication, 2024)
  • “Lip buzzing”
    • Beeck et al. (2021) found Asian elephants can expel air through their lips (“lip buzzing”), a rare ability among animals

Acoustic (seismic) communication

• Investigated in African savannah elephants (e.g., O’Connell et al. 1997; Reuter et al. 1998; Langbauer 2000; O’Connell-Rodwell et al. 2000; O’Connell-Rodwell et al. 2001) but more research needed in Asian elephants (Shermin de Silva, personal communication, 2024)
  • Not known if/how Asian elephants produce, detect, respond to, and learn from seismic cues (Shermin de Silva, personal communication, 2024)

Visual communication

• Not well studied in Asian elephants but many visual displays reported (Langbauer 2000)
• Signals of apprehension/submission:
  • Touch own face or temporal gland with trunk
  • Twitch trunk back and forth
  • Sway body side to side
  • Back into a more dominant animal’s side
  • Run with tail raised (Shoshani and Eisenberg 1982)
    • May alert herd members to approaching danger
• Signals of reproductive state (Langbauer 2000; Sukumar 2003):
  • Male's musth walk
    • See Reproduction

Tactile communication

• Used in greeting, play, and other social behaviors (Langbauer 2000)
  • Includes friendly and aggressive (agonistic) behaviors
• Group members use touch while standing and while resting
  • Lean against one another standing and lying down
  • Calves lean against their mothers when tired
• Trunk and tail often a part of tactile communication behaviors (Makecha et al. 2012)
  • Head, haunches, and legs used less often to initiate contact
• Trunk
  • Used to initiate contact with many parts of another elephant’s body (trunk, head, mouth, tail, and genital areas) (Eisenberg et al. 1971; Makecha et al. 2012; Plotnik and de Waal 2014)
  • Greet one another with trunks
    • Trunk may be held out to an approaching elephant
    • One individual may insert its trunk tip into another elephant’s mouth, perhaps to investigate the other’s food, health, and/or reproductive state
  • Parental care
    • Mother may guide her calf by gripping its tail with trunk
  • Trunk also used in caressing, wrestling, and checking reproductive status

Chemical communication

• Asian elephants rely heavily on long-lasting chemical cues
  • Scents can by detectable over short and long distances
• Sense of smell helps elephants find food and water (Plotnik et al. 2014), and also to detect danger and likely evaluate travel routes
  • Use trunk to explore scents detectable in the air and on the ground, plants, and other elephants’ bodies (e.g., Langbauer 2000)
• Emit complex chemical mixtures through urine, breath, and skin (Rasmussen 1998; Rasmussen and Krishnamurthy 2000; Riddle et al. 2006)
  • Secretions also produced by glands on the head, ears, and feet
  • Likely important in communication between elephants of different sexes and ages (see Rasmussen and Krishnamurthy 2000)
• Use sense of smell to assess emotional and physiological states of other elephants
  • Sniff breath, temporal glands (on sides of head), genitals, and urine and dung (e.g., Eisenberg et al. 1971; Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972; Rasmussen 1998; Ghosal et al. 2012)
    • Urine contains several thousand chemical compounds
    • Touching the mouth area appears to be part of greeting behavior (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972)
  • Female-to-female chemical signals strengthen relationships among female group members
    • Help to reestablish kin and social bonds, even after long separations (e.g., Rasmussen and Krishnamurthy 2000)
• Reproductive pheromones
  • Chemical signals help individuals determine the location and fitness/health of members of the opposite sex (LaDue, Schulte, et al. 2022)
    • Assess receptivity to mating, pregnancy status in females, etc. (Rasmussen and Krishnamurthy 2000)
  • Female reproductive status advertised through distinctive urinary pheromones (e.g., Rasmussen et al. 1997; Rasmussen et al. 2005)
    • Males detect female status near time of ovulation (Rasmussen et al. 2005)
      • Also see Musth (in males)
    • Females assess male scents (in urine and temporal glands) prior to mating (Rasmussen and Schulte 1998)
      • Also see Courtship
    • Females also capable of assessing reproductive status of other females (Rasmussen and Schulte 1998)

Defense

• Quickly move away from perceived threats (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972)
  • Trumpet (see Vocalizations), raise tail, and may partially coil trunk
• Herd members group together tightly (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972)
  • Young elephants stay between or behind adults for protection

Aggression

• Examples of behavioral displays:
  • Spread ears
  • Head shake, which makes ears flap
  • Give trumpeting calls
  • Charge
  • Mock charge
  • Throw objects in direction of threat/opponent (Chevalier-Skolnikoff and Liska 1993)
    • Dirt, branches
  • Scuff ground with feet
  • Kick threatening objects or animals with forefeet
  • Loud exhale followed by trunk-bounce on the ground (de Silva 2011)

Musth male status and behavior

• Males in musth, especially those of larger body size, dominant to males not in musth (Rasmussen and Schulte 1998; Chelliah and Sukumar 2013)
• Bulls may display aggressive behavior during musth periods (1 to 2 times per year)
  • May engage in high-impact headbutting or wrestling (Chelliah and Sukumar 2013), though infrequently use tusks (Krishnan 1972)
  • But physical aggression not always observed
• Physiological mechanisms reduce conflict among males
  • Adolescent male Asian elephants (15 to 20 years old) go through a tempered juvenile-age musth
    • Sweet odor produced by adolescents signals their subordinate status
    • Reduces conflict with older, dominant males
• Also see Musth (in males)

Home ranges overlap

• No evidence of territorial behavior (McKay 1973; Fernando et al. 2008; Nowak 2018)
  • Also see Home range, above

Play

• Play behavior observed from infancy through adulthood (Krishnan 1972)
• Roll in mud
• Splash and spray water
• Push trees
• Wrestle and chase other elephants
• Both sexes engage in rough play
• Clamber onto each other
• Chase and run, toss sticks, and may spar with practice opponents

Tool use

• Many kinds of tool use reported (Beck 1980; Reid 1985; Chevalier-Skolnikoff and Liska 1993; Kurt and Hartl 1995; Shumaker et al. 2011)
• Functions include relieving itches, displaying aggression, resting, etc.
• Elephants working in timber industry observed to use wedges to stop logs from rolling down steep slopes
• Use sticks and branches to scratch body, swat insects, or dislodge parasites (e.g., Krishnan 1972; McKay 1973; Chevalier-Skolnikoff and Liska 1993; Hart et al. 2001)
• Select branches, then shorten and sharpen them using trunk, feet, or teeth (Kurt and Hartl 1995)
• Some reports of elephants dropping boulders or trees on fences
• Break electric fences to reach crops or other resources on cultivated land (Fernando 2015)

Banana peeling

• One female Asian elephant, Pang Pha, at the Berlin Zoo observed using trunk tip to remove inner flesh from banana peels (Kaufmann et al. 2023)
• “She breaks the banana, shakes out and collects the pulp, and discards the peel” (Kaufmann et al. 2023)
• Appears to be a rare behavior (Kaufmann et al. 2023)
• Pha may have begun peeling bananas after watching her human caretakers peel bananas

Grief and consolation behaviors

• Touch with trunk
• Place trunk tip in another elephant’s mouth to reassure them (Vidya and Sukumar 2005a; Plotnik and de Waal 2014)
• Sharma et al. (2020) reported that Asian elephants respond with distress/grief to dead or dying elephants, similar to African elephants
• Range of possible behaviors:
• Approach, inspect, and sniff body of ill/dead elephant
• Touch body with legs or trunk
• “Visit”: walk in circles around body or guard body
• Attempt to help dying individuals
• Give trumpet vocalizations
• Carrying calf
• Pokharel et al. (2022) reported many kinds of behavioral responses to dead/dying elephants, a few which are:
• Guarding
• Touching and investigating (often by sniffing)
• Vocalizations (e.g., chirps, loud rumbles, roars, and trumpets)
• Changes in posture
• Also, uncommonly:
• Adult females carrying dead calves
• Behaviors resembling reassurance
• Behaviors to support dying or revive a dead elephant
• Plotnik and de Waal (2014) suggested that Asian elephants living in a Thailand nature park responded to other elephants they perceived to be in distress

• Vocalized toward and made physical contact (e.g., touched with trunk)
• Engaged in headbutting, mounting, charging, shoving, and chasing

Ecological and symbolic importance

• One of the last remaining “mega-herbivores” on Earth (Owen-Smith 1988; Williams et al. 2020)
• Ecosystem engineer and keystone species, like African elephants
• Break and uproot small trees and tree saplings
• Enhances habitat for other grazing animals and their predators
• May affect the abundance, composition, and growth patterns of forest plants (Ong et al. 2023)
• More research needed
• Walking/trampling opens access to trails and water for other species
• Seed dispersal role helps maintain plant diversity in forests (see below) (e.g., Campos-Arceiz and Blake 2011; Yamamoto-Ebina et al. 2016)
• Tree shredding activity creates microhabitats for small vertebrate species, such as lizards
• Also considered an “umbrella species” and “flagship species” (see Williams et al. 2020)
• Elephant conservation protects many species living in the same habitat areas
• Hold iconic and cultural value for wildlife conservation

Nutrient cycling

• Elephants produce large amounts of dung, which promotes nutrient cycling (Sukumar 2006)

• Also see Interspecies Interactions

Seed dispersal and germination

• Elephants range over large areas, dispersing seeds long distances through their dung (Sukumar 2006; Campos-Arceiz et al. 2008; Campos-Arceiz and Blake 2011)
• Plants may be dispersed up to several kilometers (Campos-Arceiz et al. 2008; Tan et al. 2021)
• So far, Asian elephants known to disperse seeds from at least 62 plant families and over 200 plant species (Yamamoto-Ebina et al. 2016; Tan et al. 2021; also see Campos-Arceiz and Blake 2011)
• Seeds dispersed in pulses when seeds/fruits abundant [Malaysia]
• With current knowledge, Asian elephants appear to disperse fruit in a more limited capacity compared to African forest elephants (Campos-Arceiz and Blake 2011)
• Seed germination rate can range from high to very low (Samansiri and Weerakoon 2008; Mahesha and Rajnish 2020; Tan et al. 2021)
• Influenced by levels of sunlight and rainfall (water), and whether plants can break through dung pile “crust” (Samansiri and Weerakoon 2008)
• Some evidence that passing through elephant’s gut allows both wild and cultivated plants to germinate (Samansiri and Weerakoon 2008)
• Some of those plant species economically important for humans (timber or agriculture) [Malaysia] (Tan et al. 2021)
• Reports of several animals feeding on seeds in elephant dung: barking deer and likely wild boar, mongooses, and porcupines (Kitamura et al. 2007; Samansiri and Weerakoon 2008; Tan et al. 2021)
• These animals disperse seeds a second time, potentially expanding germination distance
• Beetles may also disperse elephant dung (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972)

Non-human animals

• Co-occurring species
  • Range overlaps with water buffalo, wild boar, deer, sambar, gaur, and other herbivores (e.g., McKay 1973; Eisenberg 1980)
  • Herbivores feed on plant material pulled down and left behind by Asian elephants (Krishnan 1972)
• Elephant trails and water holes used by other animals (McKay 1973)
  • Also see Ecological Role
• Elephants often ignore other animals
  • Rarely appear frightened by them
  • In Sri Lanka, reported to chase water buffalo, pig, and jackal (Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972)
• Livestock
  • In some locations, may compete with livestock for grazing areas (Madhusudan 2004)
• Rhinoceroses
  • Diets of Indian and greater one-horned rhinoceroses overlap with diet of Asian elephant (Steinheim et al. 2005; Pradhan et al. 2008; Shermin de Silva, personal communication, 2024)
    • More investigation may be needed
    • Elephants may have a competitive advantage, or these two large herbivores use different foraging strategies (niche partitioning) to limit competition
  • Confrontations with rhinos probably very rare in the wild

Relationship with humans

• See Cultural History
• See Elephants in Human Industries
• See Threats to Survival

Walking

• Adults generally walk (McKay 1973)
  • Only move fast when fleeing danger or charging (see "Running," below)

• Move with one basic gait, known as the “rack” or “pace” (McKay 1973)
  • 3 feet on the ground most of the time
  • 1 foot always on ground
• Head and body stable during slow walk (McKay 1973)
  • Body has a rolling motion and head bobs during fast walk
• Normal walking speed
  • 5 to 3.7 mph (4 to 6 kph) (Hutchinson 2006)

“Running”

• Unusual hybrid gait for moving quickly (Hutchinson et al. 2003)
  • On hind legs, have forward-bending knees instead of hocks (like other four-legged animals) (Krishnan 1972)
  • Shoulders present walking motion and hips present running motion
  • Not clear if they are truly “running,” where feet leave the ground at the same time
    • Older literature refers to a “shuffle” motion (Krishnan 1972)
  • Juveniles appear to run while playing or fleeing danger
• Fastest speeds
  • Hutchinson et al. (2003) report up to 6.8 m/s (15 mph) (Hutchinson et al. 2003)
  • Most do not exceed 5 m/s (about 10 mph)
  • Some studies (e.g., Scott 1973) report faster speeds (over 48 kph, 30 mph), but these may be exaggerated or speeds reached in a short burst

Swimming

• Capable swimmers, possibly even over long distances (e.g., Sanderson 1879; Johnson 1980)
  • Along coastlines, may be able to swim from mainland areas to reach food on nearby islands (Johnson 1980)
• Observed swimming with body submerged, and usually only trunk and top of head exposed above water (McKay 1973; Johnson 1980)
• Use a “porpoise-like, lunging” swimming rhythm (Johnson 1980)
• Swim readily at rate of at least 2 kph (1 mph) (Johnson 1980)

Jumping

• Cannot jump, even narrow ditches

An Asian elephant throws dirt on its back.

This behavior helps protect an elephant's skin from the sun and insect bites.

Image credit: © San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance. All rights reserved.

An Asian elephant steps over a tree branch.

Adult elephants move with one basic gait, where three feet are almost always on the ground.

Image credit: © San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance. All rights reserved.

Eltringham (1991)
Fernando and Lande (2000)
Hart et al. (2001)
McKay (1973)
Moss (1990)
Moss et al. (2011)
O'Connell-Rodwell (2001)
Payne & Langbauer (1992)
Poole (1996)
Pringle (2008)
Rasmussen and Krishnamurthy (2000)
Santipelli & Suprahman (1986)
Schulte (2006)
Shoshani & Eisenberg (1982)
Sukumar (1989)