Observed at night during winter and dawn/dusk during summer (Schlichting et al. 2020)
May also provide some refuge from biting flies
Fly avoidance
Observed to shift habitat use and increase comforting behaviors when flies are abundant (King and Gurnell 2010)
Reduced horses' feeding time
Research studies
24-hours study at National Zoo harem at Front Royal in 1988
Activity budget
<46% feeding
.5% drinking
20.5% standing
16% stand-resting
2% self-grooming
2% mutual grooming
7% locomotion
1% playing
5% recumbency
Feeding peaked at night (68% between 2000-2400)
Recumbency peaked at night (most from 0000-0400)
Kaleta et al. (2017) observed behavior of a small herd at Warsaw Zoo
Most common behaviors
Feeding
Locomotory
Resting
Comfort-seeking behaviors
Home Range
Few studies in the wild
Hustai National Park: 120-2,400 ha (King and Gurnell 2005)
Great Gobi B Strictly Protected Area: 150-825 km² (Kaczensky et al. 2008).
Social Behavior
Aggression
Snapping, champing, tooth-clapping – usually employed by young animals
When threatening or being threatened, ears are flattened against the skull with teeth exposed
Bite with ears back, neck extended
Kick with hind legs
Chase
Herding (snaking) – usually by stallion to drive mares.
Head and neck may be moved in snake-like manner.
2 stallions prance next to each other with necks arched
Dominant stallions within a herd will become aggressive with young males when reach approximately 2 years of age
Young males then leave their natal harem group
May compete for valued resources, such as saltlicks (Gashchak and Paskevych 2019) or valued foods in managed care (Zharkikh and Andersen 2009)
Left eye/side agonistic and vigilance behavior bias observed by Austin and Rogers (2014) in a reserve-living herd in France
More pronounced in males and immature individuals
Movements
Collective movements
Start and stop movements together (Bourjade et al. 2009)
No one, consistent leader
Respond to behavior of departing individual(s)
Conflicts in group decision making tend to arise when changing activities or habitat areas
Dispersal
Females observed to disperse from natal group to new group formed by unfamiliar male (Tatin et al. 2009)
Herd dynamics
Bachelor male groups in managed care (findings from Zharkikh and Andersen 2009)
Spend time in close proximity to one another
Rarely observed singly
Larger herds form subgroups
Friendly behaviors indicate social bonding
Tolerant of juveniles of other subgroups
Communication
Visual and tactile communication
Mutual grooming
Partners stand in reverse parallel position
Teeth are used to gently bite each others coat
Wild stallions subdue mares with ‘lightening’ bites to crest and occasionally legs
May chase and then turn and kick with hind legs
Can then control with a ‘glance’
When extremely angry (and prepared to fight), stallion lowers head until it almost touches the ground
Then circles mares or another stallion
When threatening or being threatened, ears are flattened against the skull, teeth exposed
In groups that have been part of reintroduction efforts, dominant stallions in harem groups take on leadership role, defending the herd against intruders and predators, and herding mares.
Vocalizations
Neigh
Indicates expectancy of food, water, another horse, etc.
Snort
Frustration, fear, nostril cleaning
Can be an ‘alarm call’
Grunting ‘laugh'
Given in encounters with aggression, by either the instigator or recipient
Used by stallion in courtship
Sometimes punctuated with sharp squeal
Nicker
Given in care-seeking or care-offering situation
Given when seeking social interaction (Maigrot et al. 2017)
Less commonly given when expecting food (Maigrot et al. 2017)
Squeal
Given during agonistic interactions (Maigrot et al. 2017)
Also given if in pain and during sexual behavior (Maigrot et al. 2017)
Whinny
Given in a variety of situations (Maigrot et al. 2017)
Most commonly given during social separation (Maigrot et al. 2017)
Given when expecting food (Maigrot et al. 2017)
Sometimes given during agonistic interactions (Maigrot et al. 2017)
Olfactory signals
Stallions smell urine and feces of mares in their harem groups to determine whether in estrus (flehmen)
Stallions exhibit marking behaviors (e.g., Zharkikh and Andersen 2009)
Create stud piles to indicate territorial possession and harem possession to other stallions in the area
Mark with urine
One of the Herd
A herd of Pzrewalski's horses at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park.
Dominant stallions protect herds from predators and intruders.