African Elephants (Loxodonta africana and L. cyclotis) Fact Sheet: Bibliography & Resources

Abernethy KA, Coad L, Taylor G, Lee ME, Maisels F. 2013. Extent and ecological consequences of hunting in Central African rainforests in the twenty-first century. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci. 368(1625):20120303. doi:10.1098/rstb.2012.0303.

Abraham JO, Goldberg ER, Botha J, Staver AC. 2021. Heterogeneity in African savanna elephant distributions and their impacts on trees in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Ecol Evol. 11(10):5624–5634. doi:10.1002/ece3.7465.

AfESG (African Elephant Specialist Group). 2024. African Elephant Database [online database]. [2016 report data accessed 14 Feb 2024; last updated ]. https://africanelephantdatabase.org/report/2016/Africa.

Ahlering MA, Maldonado JE, Fleischer RC, Western D, Eggert LS. 2012. Fine‐scale group structure and demography of African savanna elephants recolonizing lands outside protected areas. Divers Distrib. 18(10):952–961. doi:10.1111/j.1472-4642.2012.00896.x.

Alexander RMcN, Jayes AS, Maloiy GMO, Wathuta EM. 1979. Allometry of the limb bones of mammals from shrews (Sorex) to elephant (Loxodonta). J Zool. 189(3):305–314. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1979.tb03964.x.

Allen CRB, Brent LJN, Motsentwa T, Croft DP. 2021. Field evidence supporting monitoring of chemical information on pathways by male African elephants. Anim Behav. 176:193–206. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2021.04.004.

Allen CRB, Brent LJN, Motsentwa T, Weiss MN, Croft DP. 2020. Importance of old bulls: leaders and followers in collective movements of all-male groups in African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana). Sci Rep. 10(1):13996. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-70682-y.

Amin R, Fankem O, Gilbert ON, Bruce T, Ndjassi C, Olson D, Fowler A. 2020. The status of forest elephant in the world heritage DJA Faunal Reserve, Cameroon. Pachyderm. 61:78–89.

Archie EA, Chiyo PI. 2012. Elephant behaviour and conservation: social relationships, the effects of poaching, and genetic tools for management. Mol Ecol. 21(3):765–778. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2011.05237.x.

Archie EA, Morrison TA, Foley CAH, Moss CJ, Alberts SC. 2006. Dominance rank relationships among wild female African elephants, Loxodonta africana. Anim Behav. 71(1):117–127. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2005.03.023.

Archie EA, Moss CJ, Alberts SC. 2011. Friends and relations: kinship and the nature of female elephant social relationships. In: Moss CJ, Croze H, Lee PC, editors. The Amboseli elephants: a long-term perspective on a long-lived mammal. University of Chicago Press. p. 238–245. [accessed 2024 Jan 12]. https://doi.org/10.7208/9780226542263-017.

Asner GP, Vaughn N, Smit IPJ, Levick S. 2016. Ecosystem‐scale effects of megafauna in African savannas. Ecography. 39(2):240–252. doi:10.1111/ecog.01640.

Azeem S, Bengis R, Van Aarde R, Bastos ADS. 2020. Mass die-off of African elephants in Botswana: pathogen, poison or a perfect storm? Afr J Wildl Res. 50(1). doi:10.3957/056.050.0149.

Bader C, Delapré A, Houssaye A. 2023. Shape variation in the limb long bones of modern elephants reveals adaptations to body mass and habitat. J Anat. 242(5):806–830. doi:10.1111/joa.13827.

Bagley KR, Goodwin TE, Rasmussen LEL, Schulte BA. 2006. Male African elephants, Loxodonta africana, can distinguish oestrous status via urinary signals. Anim Behav. 71(6):1439–1445. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.01.003.

Banks JE, Jackson C, Hannon LM, Thomas CM, Baya A, Njoroge L. 2010. The cascading effects of elephant presence/absence on arthropods and an Afrotropical thrush in Arabuko‐Sokoke Forest, Kenya. Afr J Ecol. 48(4):1030–1038. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2010.01211.x.

Barnes RFW, Barnes KL, Alers MPT, Blom A. 1991. Man determines the distribution of elephants in the rain forests of northeastern Gabon. Afr J Ecol. 29(1):54–63. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1991.tb00820.x.

Barnes RFW, Dubiure UF, Danquah E, Boafo Y, Nandjui A, Hema EM, Manford M. 2007. Crop‐raiding elephants and the moon. Afr J Ecol. 45(1):112–115. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2006.00689.x.

Barnes RFW, Kapela EB. 1991. Changes in the Ruaha elephant population caused by poaching. Afr J Ecol. 29(4):289–294. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1991.tb00466.x.

Bastille‐Rousseau G, Wall J, Douglas‐Hamilton I, Lesowapir B, Loloju B, Mwangi N, Wittemyer G. 2020. Landscape‐scale habitat response of African elephants shows strong selection for foraging opportunities in a human dominated ecosystem. Ecography. 43(1):149–160. doi:10.1111/ecog.04240.

Bax PN, Sheldrick DLW. 1963. Some preliminary observations on the food of elephant in the Tsavo Royal National Park (East) of Kenya. African Journal of Ecology. 1(1):40–51. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1963.tb00177.x.

Beaune D, Fruth B, Bollache L, Hohmann G, Bretagnolle F. 2013. Doom of the elephant-dependent trees in a Congo tropical forest. For Ecol Manag. 295:109–117. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2012.12.041.

Becker M, McRobb R, Watson F, Droge E, Kanyembo B, Murdoch J, Kakumbi C. 2013. Evaluating wire-snare poaching trends and the impacts of by-catch on elephants and large carnivores. Biol Conserv. 158:26–36. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2012.08.017.

Beekman JH, Prins HHT. 1989. Feeding strategies of sedentary large herbivores in East Africa, with emphasis on the African buffalo, Syncerus coffer. Afr J Ecol. 27(2):129–147. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1989.tb00937.x.

Beirne C, Houslay TM, Morkel P, Clark CJ, Fay M, Okouyi J, White LJT, Poulsen JR. 2021. African forest elephant movements depend on time scale and individual behavior. Sci Rep. 11(1):12634. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-91627-z.

Beirne C, Meier AC, Brumagin G, Jasperse-Sjolander L, Lewis M, Masseloux J, Myers K, Fay M, Okouyi J, White LJT, et al. 2020. Climatic and resource determinants of forest elephant movements. Front Ecol Evol. 8:96. doi:10.3389/fevo.2020.00096.

Benitez L, Kilian JW, Wittemyer G, Hughey LF, Fleming CH, Leimgruber P, Du Preez P, Stabach JA. 2022. Precipitation, vegetation productivity, and human impacts control home range size of elephants in dryland systems in northern Namibia. Ecol Evol. 12(9):e9288. doi:10.1002/ece3.9288.

Bennett EL. 2015. Legal ivory trade in a corrupt world and its impact on African elephant populations. Conserv Biol. 29(1):54–60. doi:10.1111/cobi.12377.

Beyers RL, Hart JA, Sinclair ARE, Grossmann F, Klinkenberg B, Dino S. 2011. Resource wars and conflict ivory: the impact of civil conflict on elephants in the Democratic Republic of Congo - the case of the Okapi Reserve. Somers M, editor. PLOS ONE. 6(11):e27129. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0027129.

Black E, Boult V, Hirons L, Woolnough S. 2024. The potential value of seasonal drought forecasts in the context of climate change: A case study of the African elephant conservation sector. Meteorol Appl. 31(2):e2190. doi:10.1002/met.2190.

Blake S. 2002. The ecology of forest elephant distribution and its implications for conservation [Doctoral thesis]. [United Kingdom]: University of Edinburgh.

Blake S, Deem SL, Mossimbo E, Maisels F, Walsh P. 2009. Forest elephants: tree planters of the Congo. Biotropica. 41(4):459–468. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2009.00512.x.

Blake S, Deem SL, Strindberg S, Maisels F, Momont L, Isia I-B, Douglas-Hamilton I, Karesh WB, Kock MD. 2008. Roadless wilderness area determines forest elephant movements in the Congo Basin. McClain CR, editor. PLOS ONE. 3(10):e3546. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003546.

Blake S, Inkamba‐Nkulu C. 2004. Fruit, minerals, and forest elephant trails: do all roads lead to Rome? Biotropica. 36(3):392–401. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2004.tb00332.x.

Blake S, Maisels F. 2023. Forest elephant movements in Central Africa: megafauna need megaspaces. In: Reyna-Hurtado R, Chapman CA, Melletti M, editors. Movement Ecology of Afrotropical Forest Mammals. Cham: Springer International Publishing. p. 27–58. [accessed 2023 Nov 8]. https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-27030-7_3.

Blake S, Strindberg S, Boudjan P, Makombo C, Bila-Isia I, Ilambu O, Grossmann F, Bene-Bene L, De Semboli B, Mbenzo V, et al. 2007. Forest elephant crisis in the Congo Basin. Mace GM, editor. PLOS Biol. 5(4):e111. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050111.

Blanc JJ, Barnes RFW, Craig GC, Dublin HT, Thouless CR, Douglas-Hamilton I, Hart JA. 2007. African elephant status report 2007: an update from the African elephant database. IUCN. [accessed 2024 Jan 16]. https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/9022.

Bohrer G, Beck PS, Ngene SM, Skidmore AK, Douglas-Hamilton I. 2014. Elephant movement closely tracks precipitation-driven vegetation dynamics in a Kenyan forest-savanna landscape. Mov Ecol. 2(1):2. doi:10.1186/2051-3933-2-2.

Braga-Pereira F, Peres CA, Campos-Silva JV, Santos CV-D, Alves RRN. 2020. Warfare-induced mammal population declines in Southwestern Africa are mediated by species life history, habitat type and hunter preferences. Sci Rep. 10(1):15428. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-71501-0.

Branco PS, Merkle JA, Pringle RM, Pansu J, Potter AB, Reynolds A, Stalmans M, Long RA. 2019. Determinants of elephant foraging behaviour in a coupled human‐natural system: Is brown the new green? Fryxell J, editor. J Anim Ecol. 88(5):780–792. doi:10.1111/1365-2656.12971.

Brand CM, Johnson MB, Parker LD, Maldonado JE, Korte L, Vanthomme H, Alonso A, Ruiz-Lopez MJ, Wells CP, Ting N. 2020. Abundance, density, and social structure of African forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis) in a human-modified landscape in southwestern Gabon. Michaux JR, editor. PLOS ONE. 15(4):e0231832. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0231832.

Breuer T, Maisels F, Fishlock V. 2016. The consequences of poaching and anthropogenic change for forest elephants. Conserv Biol. 30(5):1019–1026. doi:10.1111/cobi.12679.

Buchholtz EK, Stronza A, Songhurst A, McCulloch G, Fitzgerald LA. 2020. Using landscape connectivity to predict human-wildlife conflict. Biol Conserv. 248:108677. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108677.

Bunney K, Bond WJ, Henley M. 2017. Seed dispersal kernel of the largest surviving megaherbivore—the African savanna elephant. Biotropica. 49(3):395–401. doi:10.1111/btp.12423.

Burton-Roberts R, Cordes LS, Slotow R, Vanak AT, Thaker M, Govender N, Shannon G. 2022. Seasonal range fidelity of a megaherbivore in response to environmental change. Sci Rep. 12(1):22008. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-25334-8.

Bush ER, Whytock RC, Bahaa-el-din L, Bourgeois S, Bunnefeld N, Cardoso AW, Dikangadissi JT, Dimbonda P, Dimoto E, Edzang Ndong J, et al. 2020. Long-term collapse in fruit availability threatens Central African forest megafauna. Science. 370(6521):1219–1222. doi:10.1126/science.abc7791.

Buss IO. 1961. Some observations on food habits and behavior of the African elephant. J Wildl Manag. 25(2):131. doi:10.2307/3798671.

Buss IO, Estes JA. 1971. The functional significance of movements and positions of the pinnae of the African elephant, Loxodonta africana. J Mammal. 52(1):21–27. doi:10.2307/1378428.

Buss IO, Rasmussen LE, Smuts GL. 1976. The role of stress and individual recognition in the function of the African elephant’s temporal gland. Mammalia. 40(3). doi:10.1515/mamm.1976.40.3.437. [accessed 2024 Oct 9]. https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/mamm.1976.40.3.437/html.

Byrne RW, Bates LA. 2011. Elephant cognition: what we know about what elephants know. In: Moss CJ, Croze H, Lee PC, editors. The Amboseli elephants: a long-term perspective on a long-lived mammal. University of Chicago Press. p. 174–184. [accessed 2024 Jan 12]. https://doi.org/10.7208/9780226542263-013.

Campbell-Staton SC, Arnold BJ, Gonçalves D, Granli P, Poole J, Long RA, Pringle RM. 2021. Ivory poaching and the rapid evolution of tusklessness in African elephants. Science. 374(6566):483–487. doi:10.1126/science.abe7389.

Campos-Arceiz A, Blake S. 2011. Megagardeners of the forest – the role of elephants in seed dispersal. Acta Oecologica. 37(6):542–553. doi:10.1016/j.actao.2011.01.014.

Canney SM. 2019. The Mali Elephant Project: protecting elephants amidst conflict and poverty. Int Zoo Yearb. 53(1):174–188. doi:10.1111/izy.12236.

Cantalapiedra JL, Sanisidro Ó, Zhang H, Alberdi MT, Prado JL, Blanco F, Saarinen J. 2021. The rise and fall of proboscidean ecological diversity. Nat Ecol Evol. 5(9):1266–1272. doi:10.1038/s41559-021-01498-w.

Cardoso AW, Malhi Y, Oliveras I, Lehmann D, Ndong JE, Dimoto E, Bush E, Jeffery K, Labriere N, Lewis SL, et al. 2020. The role of forest elephants in shaping tropical forest–savanna coexistence. Ecosystems. 23(3):602–616. doi:10.1007/s10021-019-00424-3.

Cardoso AW, Oliveras I, Abernethy KA, Jeffery KJ, Lehmann D, Edzang Ndong J, McGregor I, Belcher CM, Bond WJ, Malhi YS. 2018. Grass species flammability, not biomass, drives changes in fire behavior at tropical forest-savanna transitions. Front For Glob Change. 1:6. doi:10.3389/ffgc.2018.00006.

Castelda SM, Napora ES, Nasseri NA, Vyas DK, Schulte BA. 2011. Diurnal co-occurrence of African elephants and other mammals at a Tanzanian waterhole: Waterhole co-occurrence of African elephants and other mammals. Afr J Ecol. 49(2):250–252. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2010.01249.x.

Cerling TE, Wittemyer G, Rasmussen HB, Vollrath F, Cerling CE, Robinson TJ, Douglas-Hamilton I. 2006. Stable isotopes in elephant hair document migration patterns and diet changes. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 103(2):371–373. doi:10.1073/pnas.0509606102.

Chamaillé‐Jammes S, Valeix M, Madzikanda H, Fritz H. 2014. Surface water and elephant ecology: lessons from a waterhole‐driven ecosystem, Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. In: Skarpe C, Du Toit JT, Moe SR, editors. Elephants and Savanna Woodland Ecosystems. 1st ed. Wiley. p. 118–131. [accessed 2023 Dec 1]. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118858615.ch8.

Chase MJ, Griffin CR. 2009. Elephants caught in the middle: impacts of war, fences and people on elephant distribution and abundance in the Caprivi Strip, Namibia. Afr J Ecol. 47(2):223–233. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2008.01017.x.

Chase MJ, Griffin CR. 2011. Elephants of south‐east Angola in war and peace: their decline, re‐colonization and recent status. Afr J Ecol. 49(3):353–361. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2011.01272.x.

Chase MJ, Schlossberg S, Griffin CR, Bouché PJC, Djene SW, Elkan PW, Ferreira S, Grossman F, Kohi EM, Landen K, et al. 2016. Continent-wide survey reveals massive decline in African savannah elephants. PeerJ. 4:e2354. doi:10.7717/peerj.2354.

Chen Y, Wang Y, Mumby HS. 2023. Five years of the ivory ban in China: Developments, limitations, and potential for improvement. Biol Conserv. 284:110177. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2023.110177.

Chiyo PI, Archie EA, Hollister-Smith JA, Lee PC, Poole JH, Moss CJ, Alberts SC. 2011. Association patterns of African elephants in all-male groups: the role of age and genetic relatedness. Anim Behav. 81(6):1093–1099. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.02.013.

Chiyo PI, Cochrane EP, Naughton L, Basuta GI. 2005. Temporal patterns of crop raiding by elephants: a response to changes in forage quality or crop availability? Afr J Ecol. 43(1):48–55. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2004.00544.x.

Chiyo PI, Moss CJ, Alberts SC. 2012. The influence of life history milestones and association networks on crop-raiding behavior in male African elephants. Fenton B, editor. PLOS ONE. 7(2):e31382. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0031382.

Chiyo PI, Moss CJ, Archie EA, Hollister-Smith JA, Alberts SC. 2011b. Using molecular and observational techniques to estimate the number and raiding patterns of crop-raiding elephants. Journal of Applied Ecology. 48(3):788–796. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2011.01967.x.

Chiyo PI, Obanda V, Korir DK. 2015. Illegal tusk harvest and the decline of tusk size in the African elephant. Ecol Evol. 5(22):5216–5229. doi:10.1002/ece3.1769.

Chou HW, Peng Y, Li W. 2024. Analysis of trafficking of protected wild species and their products in China from 2017 to 2021 – Exploring the feasibility of applying a financial approach in combating wild species trafficking. Beijing (China): TRAFFIC China. [accessed 2024 Nov 1]. https://www.traffic.org/publications/reports/analysis-of-trafficking-of-protected-wildlife-and-their-products-in-china-from-2017-to-2021/.

Christy B. 2015. How killing elephants finances terror in Africa. Natl Geogr. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/tracking-ivory/article.html.

Clark CJ, Poulsen JR, Malonga R, Elkan, Jr. PW. 2009. Logging concessions can extend the conservation estate for Central African tropical forests. Conserv Biol. 23(5):1281–1293. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01243.x.

Codron J, Codron D, Lee-Thorp JA, Sponheimer M, Kirkman K, Duffy KJ, Sealy J. 2011. Landscape-scale feeding patterns of African elephant inferred from carbon isotope analysis of feces. Oecologia. 165(1):89–99. doi:10.1007/s00442-010-1835-6.

Coe M. 1977. The role of termites in the removal of elephant dung in the Tsavo (East) National Park Kenya. African Journal of Ecology. 15(1):49–55. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1977.tb00377.x.

Cook RM, Parrini F, King LE, Witkowski ETF, Henley MD. 2018. African honeybees as a mitigation method for elephant impact on trees. Biol Conserv. 217:329–336. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2017.11.024.

Cook RM, Witkowski ETF, Helm CV, Henley MD, Parrini F. 2017. Recent exposure to African elephants after a century of exclusion: Rapid accumulation of marula tree impact and mortality, and poor regeneration. For Ecol Manag. 401:107–116. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2017.07.006.

Corfield TF. 1973. Elephant mortality in Tsavo National Park, Kenya. Afr J Ecol. 11(3–4):339–368. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1973.tb00098.x.

Correa RJ, Lindsey PA, Critchlow R, Beale CM, Geldmann J, Plumptre AJ. 2024. Performance of protected areas in conserving African elephants. Conserv Lett. 17(4):e13041. doi:10.1111/conl.13041.

Costes P, Delapré A, Houssin C, Mulot B, Pouydebat E, Cornette R. 2024. Maximum trunk tip force assessment related to trunk position and prehensile 'fingers' implication in African savannah elephants. PLOS ONE 19(5): e0301529. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0301529.

Croze H, Moss CJ. 2011. Patterns of occupancy in time and space. In: Moss CJ, Croze H, Lee PC, editors. The Amboseli elephants: A long-term perspective on a long-lived mammal. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 89–106. [accessed 2024 Jan 12]. https://doi.org/10.7208/9780226542263-009.

Cushman SA, Chase M, Griffin C. 2010. Mapping landscape resistance to identify corridors and barriers for elephant movement in southern Africa. In: Cushman SA, Huettmann F, editors. Spatial Complexity, Informatics, and Wildlife Conservation. Tokyo: Springer Japan. p. 349–367. [accessed 2023 Dec 5]. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-4-431-87771-4_19.

Dagenais P, Hensman S, Haechler V, Milinkovitch MC. 2021. Elephants evolved strategies reducing the biomechanical complexity of their trunk. Curr Biol. 31(21):4727-4737.e4. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2021.08.029.

Dale R, Plotnik JM. 2017. Elephants know when their bodies are obstacles to success in a novel transfer task. Sci Rep. 7(1):46309. doi:10.1038/srep46309.

Davies AB, Gaylard A, Asner GP. 2018. Megafaunal effects on vegetation structure throughout a densely wooded African landscape. Ecol Appl. 28(2):398–408. doi:10.1002/eap.1655.

Davis RS, Gentle LK, Mgoola WO, Stone EL, Uzal A, Yarnell RW. 2023. Using camera trap bycatch data to assess habitat use and the influence of human activity on African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Kasungu National Park, Malawi. Mamm Biol. 103(1):121–132. doi:10.1007/s42991-022-00330-7.

De Boer WF, Van Oort JWA, Grover M, Peel MJS. 2015. Elephant-mediated habitat modifications and changes in herbivore species assemblages in Sabi Sand, South Africa. Eur J Wildl Res. 61(4):491–503. doi:10.1007/s10344-015-0919-3.

Dejene SW, Mpakairi KS, Kanagaraj R, Wato YA, Mengistu S. 2021. Modelling continental range shift of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) under a changing climate and land cover: implications for future conservation of the species. Afr Zool. 56(1):25–34. doi:10.1080/15627020.2020.1846617.

Derham K, Henley MD, Schulte BA. 2016. Wire netting reduces African elephant (Loxodonta africana) impact to selected trees in South Africa. Koedoe. 58(1):7 pages. doi:10.4102/koedoe.v58i1.1327.

Deiringer N, Schneeweiß U, Kaufmann LV, Eigen L, Speissegger C, Gerhardt B, Holtze S, Fritsch G, Göritz F, Becker R, et al. 2023. The functional anatomy of elephant trunk whiskers. Commun Biol. 6(1):591. doi:10.1038/s42003-023-04945-5.

Di Minin E, ’T Sas-Rolfes M, Selier J, Louis M, Bradshaw CJA. 2022. Dismantling the poachernomics of the illegal wildlife trade. Biol Conserv. 265:109418. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2021.109418.

Domínguez-Oliva A, Ghezzi MD, Mora-Medina P, Hernández-Ávalos I, Jacome J, Castellón A, Falcón I, Reséndiz F, Romero N, Ponce R, et al. 2022. Anatomical, physiological, and behavioral mechanisms of thermoregulation in elephants. J Anim Behav Biometeorol. 10(4):1–13. doi:10.31893/jabb.22033.

Doughty CE, Wolf A, Morueta‐Holme N, Jørgensen PM, Sandel B, Violle C, Boyle B, Kraft NJB, Peet RK, Enquist BJ, et al. 2016. Megafauna extinction, tree species range reduction, and carbon storage in Amazonian forests. Ecography. 39(2):194–203. doi:10.1111/ecog.01587.

Douglas-Hamilton I. 1972. On the ecology and behaviour of the African elephant [PhD Thesis]. University of Oxford.

Douglas-Hamilton I, Wall J. 2009. Drought threatens Mali elephants. Pachyderm. 45:129–130.

Du Plessis K, Ganswindt SB, Bertschinger H, Crossey B, Henley MD, Ramahlo M, Ganswindt A. 2021. Social and seasonal factors contribute to shifts in male African elephant (Loxodonta africana) foraging and activity patterns in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Animals. 11(11):3070. doi:10.3390/ani11113070.

Dudley JP, Criag GC, Gibson DStC, Haynes G, Klimowicz J. 2001. Drought mortality of bush elephants in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. Afr J Ecol. 39(2):187–194. doi:10.1046/j.0141-6707.2000.00297.x.

Dunkin RC, Wilson D, Way N, Johnson K, Williams TM. 2013. Climate influences thermal balance and water use in African and Asian elephants: physiology can predict drivers of elephant distribution. J Exp Biol. 216(15):2939–2952. doi:10.1242/jeb.080218.

Edwards CTT, Gobush KS, Maisels F, Balfour D, Taylor R, Wittemyer G. 2024. Survey-based inference of continental African elephant decline. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 121(48):e2403816121. doi:10.1073/pnas.2403816121.

EIA (Environmental Investigation Agency). 2018. Exposing the Hydra: the growing role of Vietnamese syndicates in ivory trafficking. [accessed 21 Jan 2025]. https://reports.eia-international.org/exposingthehydra/.

Eltringham SK. 1991. The illustrated encyclopedia of elephants. New York: Crescent Books.

Eltringham SK. 2000. Ecology and behavior. In: Elephants (Shoshani J, editor). New York: Checkmark Books.

Eniang EA, Haile A, Yihdego T. 2007. Impacts of landmines on the environment and biodiversity. Environmental Policy and Law 37(6):501-504.

Estes R. 2012. Elephants (Order Proboscidea, Family Elephantidae). In: The behavior guide to African mammals: including hoofed mammals, carnivores, primates. Twentieth anniversary edition. Berkeley (Calif.): University of California press. p. 259–267.

Fey SB, Siepielski AM, Nusslé S, Cervantes-Yoshida K, Hwan JL, Huber ER, Fey MJ, Catenazzi A, Carlson SM. 2015. Recent shifts in the occurrence, cause, and magnitude of animal mass mortality events. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 112(4):1083–1088. doi:10.1073/pnas.1414894112.

Fishlock V, Lee PC. 2013. Forest elephants: fission–fusion and social arenas. Anim Behav. 85(2):357–363. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.11.004.

de Flamingh A, Coutu A, Sealy J, Chirikure S, Bastos ADS, Libanda-Mubusisi NM, Malhi RS, Roca AL. 2021. Sourcing elephant ivory from a sixteenth-century Portuguese shipwreck. Curr Biol. 31(3):621-628.e4. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2020.10.086.

Foggin CM, Rosen LE, Henton MM, Buys A, Floyd T, Turner AD, Tarbin J, Lloyd AS, Chaitezvi C, Ellis RJ, et al. 2023. Pasteurella sp. associated with fatal septicaemia in six African elephants. Nat Commun. 14(1):6398. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-41987-z.

Foley CAH, Faust LJ. 2010. Rapid population growth in an elephant Loxodonta africana population recovering from poaching in Tarangire National Park, Tanzania. Oryx. 44(2):205–212. doi:10.1017/S0030605309990706.

Fowler ME. 1993. Zoo & wild animal medicine, current therapy 3. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders.

Frade F. 1931. Sur l'existence en afrique de deux especes d elephants. Bulletin de la Société portugaise des sciences naturelles 9:135–138. [accessed 2024 Feb 09]. Available at Hathitrust: https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=coo.31924071018133&seq=623.

Francis RJ, Brandis KJ, Kingsford RT, Callaghan CT. 2020. Quantifying bird diversity at three sites of differing herbivore presence. J Ornithol. 161(4):1117–1127. doi:10.1007/s10336-020-01804-6.

Fritz H, Duncan P, Gordon IJ, Illius AW. 2002. Megaherbivores influence trophic guilds structure in African ungulate communities. Oecologia. 131(4):620–625. doi:10.1007/s00442-002-0919-3.

Fullman TJ, Child B. 2013. Water distribution at local and landscape scales affects tree utilization by elephants in C hobe N ational P ark, B otswana. Afr J Ecol. 51(2):235–243. doi:10.1111/aje.12026.

Funk SM, Nkono J, Lushimba A, Fa JE, Williams D. 2022. Determining baselines and trends of Eastern chimpanzees and forest elephants in a Central African protected area after civil strife. J Nat Conserv. 70:126296. doi:10.1016/j.jnc.2022.126296.

Ganswindt A, Muenscher S, Henley M, Henley S, Heistermann M, Palme R, Thompson P, Bertschinger H. 2010. Endocrine correlates of musth and the impact of ecological and social factors in free-ranging African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Horm Behav. 57(4–5):506–514. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.02.009.

Gao Y, Clark SG. 2014. Elephant ivory trade in China: trends and drivers. Biol Conserv. 180:23–30. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2014.09.020.

Gara TW, Wang T, Dube T, Ngene SM, Mpakairi KS. 2021. African elephant (Loxodonta africana) select less fragmented landscapes to connect core habitats in human‐dominated landscapes. Afr J Ecol. 59(2):370–377. doi:10.1111/aje.12839.

Gara TW, Wang T, Skidmore AK, Zengeya FM, Ngene SM, Murwira A, Ndaimani H. 2017. Understanding the effect of landscape fragmentation and vegetation productivity on elephant habitat utilization in Amboseli ecosystem, Kenya. Afr J Ecol. 55(3):259–269. doi:10.1111/aje.12346.

Garstang M. 2004. Long-distance, low-frequency elephant communication. J Comp Physiol A. 190(10):791–805. doi:10.1007/s00359-004-0553-0.

Garstang M. 2010. Elephant infrasounds: long-range communication. In: Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience. Vol. 19. Elsevier. p. 57–67. [accessed 2023 Dec 5]. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S156973391070014X.

Garstang M, Du Plessis W, Du Plessis C. 2015. Elephant sense and sensibility: behavior and cognition. London, UK ; San Diego, CA: Academic Press/AP, Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier.

Gaynor KM, Branco PS, Long RA, Gonçalves DD, Granli PK, Poole JH. 2018. Effects of human settlement and roads on diel activity patterns of elephants (Loxodonta africana). Afr J Ecol. 56(4):872–881. doi:10.1111/aje.12552.

Gilbert J, Stoeger A, Charlton B, Reby D. 2017. Stepwise regimes in elephant trumpet calls: Similarities with brass instrument behavior. J Acoust Soc Am. 141(5_Supplement):3724–3725. doi:10.1121/1.4988165.

Gobush K, Kerr B, Wasser S. 2009. Genetic relatedness and disrupted social structure in a poached population of African elephants. Mol Ecol. 18(4):722–734. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.04043.x.

Gobush KS, Edwards CTT, Balfour D, Wittemyer G, Maisels F, Taylor RD. 2022. Loxodonta africana (amended version of 2021 assessment). The IUCN red list of threatened species [Internet]. Version 2024-2; e.T181008073A223031019. [species assessed 2020 Nov 13; page accessed 2025 Jan 21]; https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-2.RLTS.T181008073A223031019.en.

Gobush KS, Edwards CTT, Maisels F, Wittemyer G, Balfour D, Taylor RD. 2021. Loxodonta cyclotis (errata version published in 2021). The IUCN red list of threatened species [Internet]. Version 2024-2; e.T181007989A204404464. [species assessed 2020 Nov 13; page accessed 2025 Jan 21]; https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T181007989A204404464.en.

Gobush KS, Mutayoba BM, Wasser SK. 2008. Long‐term impacts of poaching on relatedness, stress physiology, and reproductive output of adult female African elephants. Conserv Biol. 22(6):1590–1599. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.01035.x.

Goldenberg SZ, Douglas-Hamilton I, Wittemyer G. 2018. Inter-generational change in African elephant range use is associated with poaching risk, primary productivity and adult mortality. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci. 285(1879):20180286. doi:10.1098/rspb.2018.0286.

Goldenberg SZ, de Silva S, Rasmussen HB, Douglas-Hamilton I, Wittemyer G. 2014. Controlling for behavioural state reveals social dynamics among male African elephants, Loxodonta africana. Anim Behav. 95:111–119. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.07.002.

Goldenberg SZ, Turkalo AK, Wrege PH, Hedwig D, Wittemyer G. 2021. Entry and aggregation at a Central African bai reveal social patterns in the elusive forest elephant Loxodonta cyclotis. Anim Behav. 171:77–85. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.11.008.

Goldenberg SZ, Wittemyer G. 2017. Orphaned female elephant social bonds reflect lack of access to mature adults. Sci Rep. 7(1):14408. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-14712-2.

Goldenberg SZ, Wittemyer G. 2018. Orphaning and natal group dispersal are associated with social costs in female elephants. Anim Behav. 143:1–8. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.07.002.

Goldenberg SZ, Wittemyer G. 2020. Elephant behavior toward the dead: a review and insights from field observations. Primates. 61(1):119–128. doi:10.1007/s10329-019-00766-5.

Goodwin TE, Broederdorf LJ, Burkert BA, Hirwa IH, Mark DB, Waldrip ZJ, Kopper RA, Sutherland MV, Freeman EW, Hollister-Smith JA, et al. 2012. Chemical signals of elephant musth: temporal aspects of microbially-mediated modifications. J Chem Ecol. 38(1):81–87. doi:10.1007/s10886-011-0056-8.

Gordon CE, Greve M, Henley M, Bedetti A, Allin P, Svenning J. 2023. Elephant rewilding affects landscape openness and fauna habitat across a 92‐year period. Ecol Appl. 33(3):e2810. doi:10.1002/eap.2810.

Graham MD, Douglas‐Hamilton I, Adams WM, Lee PC. 2009. The movement of African elephants in a human‐dominated land‐use mosaic. Anim Conserv. 12(5):445–455. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.2009.00272.x.

Greenspoon L, Krieger E, Sender R, Rosenberg Y, Bar-On YM, Moran U, Antman T, Meiri S, Roll U, Noor E, et al. 2023. The global biomass of wild mammals. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 120(10):e2204892120. doi:10.1073/pnas.2204892120.

Grimshaw JM, Cordeiro NJ, Foley CAH. 1995. The mammals of Kilimanjaro. J East Afr Nat Hist. 84(2):105–139. doi:10.2982/0012-8317(1995)84[105:TMOK]2.0.CO;2.

Gross EM, Lahkar BP, Subedi N, Nyirenda VR, Klebelsberg E, Jakoby O. 2021. Elephants in the village: Causes and consequences of property damage in Asia and Africa. Conservat Sci and Prac. 3(2):e343. doi:10.1111/csp2.343.

Guarnieri M, Kumaishi G, Brock C, Chatterjee M, Fabiano E, Katrak-Adefowora R, Larsen A, Lockmann TM, Roehrdanz PR. 2024. Effects of climate, land use, and human population change on human–elephant conflict risk in Africa and Asia. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 121(6):e2312569121. doi:10.1073/pnas.2312569121.

Gunn J, Hawkins D, Barnes RFW, Mofulu F, Grant RA, Norton GW. 2014. The influence of lunar cycles on crop‐raiding elephants; evidence for risk avoidance. Afr J Ecol. 52(2):129–137. doi:10.1111/aje.12091.

Günther RH, O’Connell‐Rodwell CE, Klemperer SL. 2004. Seismic waves from elephant vocalizations: A possible communication mode? Geophys Res Lett. 31(11):2004GL019671. doi:10.1029/2004GL019671.

Guy PR. 1976. Diurnal activity patterns of elephant in the Sengwa Area, Rhodesia. Afr J Ecol. 14(4):285–295. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1976.tb00243.x.

Haddad CR, Honiball AS, Dippenaar‐Schoeman AS, Slotow R, Van Rensburg BJ. 2010. Spiders as potential indicators of elephant‐induced habitat changes in endemic sand forest, Maputaland, South Africa. Afr J Ecol. 48(2):446–460. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01133.x.

Haenlein C, Smith MLR, editors. 2017. Poaching, wildlife trafficking and security in Africa: myths and realities. 1st ed. Routledge. [accessed 2024 Jan 16]. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781351370813.

Hall-Martin AJ. 1987. Role of musth in the reproductive strategy of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). South Afr J Sci. 83(10):616. doi:10.10520/AJA00382353_5408.

Hall-Martin AJ, Van Der Walt LA. 1984. Plasma testosterone levels in relation to musth in the male African Elephant. Koedoe. 27(1):147–149. doi:10.4102/koedoe.v27i1.561.

Hart BL, Hart LA, Pinter-Wollman N. 2008. Large brains and cognition: Where do elephants fit in? Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 32(1):86–98. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.05.012.

Hart J, Gobush K, Maisels F, Wasser S, Okita-Ouma B, Slotow R. 2021. African forest and savannah elephants treated as separate species. Oryx. 55(2):170–171. doi:10.1017/S0030605320001386.

Hauenstein S, Kshatriya M, Blanc J, Dormann CF, Beale CM. 2019. African elephant poaching rates correlate with local poverty, national corruption and global ivory price. Nat Commun. 10(1):2242. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-09993-2.

Hawley C, Beirne C, Meier A, Poulsen J. 2018. Conspecific investigation of a deceased forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis). Pachyderm. 59:97–100.

Head JS, Boesch C, Robbins MM, Rabanal LI, Makaga L, Kühl HS. 2013. Effective sociodemographic population assessment of elusive species in ecology and conservation management. Ecol Evol. 3(9):2903–2916. doi:10.1002/ece3.670.

Hedwig D, DeBellis M, Wrege PH. 2018. Not so far: attenuation of low-frequency vocalizations in a rainforest environment suggests limited acoustic mediation of social interaction in African forest elephants. Behav Ecol Sociobiol. 72(3):33. doi:10.1007/s00265-018-2451-4.

Heinrich B, Bartholomew GA. 1979. The ecology of the African dung beetle. Scientific American. 241(5):146–157.

Herculano-Houzel S, Avelino-de-Souza K, Neves K, Porfírio J, Messeder D, Mattos Feijó L, Maldonado J, Manger PR. 2014. The elephant brain in numbers. Front Neuroanat. 8. doi:10.3389/fnana.2014.00046. [accessed 2024 Jan 26]. http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnana.2014.00046/abstract.

Hildebrandt TB, Lueders I, Hermes R, Goeritz F, Saragusty J. 2011. Reproductive cycle of the elephant. Animal Reproduction Science. 124(3–4):176–183. doi:10.1016/j.anireprosci.2010.08.027.

Hiller C, ’T Sas‐Rolfes M. 2024. Systematic review of the impact of restrictive wildlife trade measures on conservation of iconic species in southern Africa. Conserv Biol.:e14262. doi:10.1111/cobi.14262.

Hoare RE, Du Toit JT. 1999. Coexistence between people and elephants in African savannas. Conserv Biol. 13(3):633–639. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.98035.x.

Hoerner F, Lawrenz A, Oerke A-K, Müller DWH, Azogu-Sepe I, Roller M, Damerau K, Preisfeld A. 2023. Long-term olfactory memory in African elephants. Animals. 13(4):679. doi:10.3390/ani13040679.

Holdo RM, McDowell LR. 2004. Termite mounds as nutrient–rich food patches for elephants. Biotropica. 36(2):231–239. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2004.tb00314.x.

Hooijer DA. 1955. Fossil Proboscidea from the Malay Archipelago and the Punjab. Zool Verh. 28(1):1–146.

Hope SF, Willgohs KR, Dittakul S, Plotnik JM. 2024 Oct 22. Do elephants really never forget? What we know about elephant memory and a call for further investigation. Learn Behav. doi:10.3758/s13420-024-00655-y. [accessed 2024 Nov 27]. https://link.springer.com/10.3758/s13420-024-00655-y.

Huang RM, Maré C, Guldemond RAR, Pimm SL, Van Aarde RJ. 2024. Protecting and connecting landscapes stabilizes populations of the Endangered savannah elephant. Sci Adv. 10(1):eadk2896. doi:10.1126/sciadv.adk2896.

Huang RM, Van Aarde RJ, Pimm SL, Chase MJ, Leggett K. 2022. Mapping potential connections between Southern Africa’s elephant populations. PLOS ONE. 17(10):e0275791. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0275791.

Huang S, Weng Q. 2014. China’s ivory market: the elephant in the room. Science. 343(6171):611–611. doi:10.1126/science.343.6171.611-b.

Huang W, Wang H, Wei Y. 2020. Mapping the illegal international ivory trading network to identify key hubs and smuggling routes: illegal international ivory trading network from 1975 to 2017. EcoHealth. 17(4):523–539. doi:10.1007/s10393-020-01511-x.

Hunninck L, Ringstad IH, Jackson CR, May R, Fossøy F, Uiseb K, Killian W, Palme R, Røskaft E. 2018. Being stressed outside the park—conservation of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Namibia. Conserv Physiol. 6(1). doi:10.1093/conphys/cox080.

Hutchinson JR, Delmer C, Miller CE, Hildebrandt T, Pitsillides AA, Boyde A. 2011. From flat foot to fat foot: structure, ontogeny, function, and evolution of elephant “sixth toes.” Science. 334(6063):1699–1703. doi:10.1126/science.1211437.

Hutchinson JR, Famini D, Lair R, Kram R. 2003. Are fast-moving elephants really running? Nature. 422(6931):493–494. doi:10.1038/422493a.

Hutchinson JR, Schwerda D, Famini DJ, Dale RHI, Fischer MS, Kram R. 2006. The locomotor kinematics of Asian and African elephants: changes with speed and size. J Exp Biol. 209(19):3812–3827. doi:10.1242/jeb.02443.

Ihwagi FW, Chira RM, Kironchi G, Vollrath F, Douglas‐Hamilton I. 2012. Rainfall pattern and nutrient content influences on African elephants’ debarking behaviour in Samburu and Buffalo Springs National Reserves, Kenya. Afr J Ecol. 50(2):152–159. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2011.01305.x.

Ihwagi FW, Thouless C, Wang T, Skidmore AK, Omondi P, Douglas-Hamilton I. 2018. Night-day speed ratio of elephants as indicator of poaching levels. Ecol Indic. 84:38–44. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2017.08.039.

Ihwagi FW, Vollrath F, Chira RM, Douglas‐Hamilton I, Kironchi G. 2010. The impact of elephants, Loxodonta africana, on woody vegetation through selective debarking in Samburu and Buffalo Springs National Reserves, Kenya. Afr J Ecol. 48(1):87–95. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01089.x.

Indraswari K, Leupen BTC, Ngyuyen MDT, Phassaraudomsak M. 2020. Trading faces: a snapshot of the online ivory trade in Indonesia, Thailand and Viet Nam in 2016 with an update in 2019. Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia: TRAFFIC. [accessed 2024 Nov 1]. https://www.traffic.org/publications/reports/illicit-ivory-trade-in-indonesia-thailand-and-viet-nam/.

Isaza R. 2006. Respiratory system. In: Biology, medicine and surgery of elephants (Fowler ME, Mikota SK, editors). Ames (IA): Blackwell Publishing. p. 291–298.

Ishida Y, Demeke Y, Van Coeverden De Groot PJ, Georgiadis NJ, Leggett KEA, Fox VE, Roca AL. 2011. Distinguishing forest and savanna African elephants using short nuclear DNA sequences. J Hered. 102(5):610–616. doi:10.1093/jhered/esr073.

Ishida Y, Oleksyk TK, Georgiadis NJ, David VA, Zhao K, Stephens RM, Kolokotronis S-O, Roca AL. 2011. Reconciling apparent conflicts between mitochondrial and nuclear phylogenies in African elephants. Murphy WJ, editor. PLOS ONE. 6(6):e20642. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020642.

Jacobson SL, Plotnik JM. 2020. The importance of sensory perception in an elephant’s cognitive world. Comparative Cognition & Behavior Reviews. 15:131–148.

Jachmann H, Berry PSM, Imae H. 1995. Tusklessness in African elephants: a future trend. Afr J Ecol. 33(3):230–235. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1995.tb00800.x.

Jainudeen MR, Katongole CB, Short RV. 1972. Plasma testosterone levels in relation to musth and sexual activity in the male Asiatic elephant, Elephas maximus. Reproduction. 29(1):99–103. doi:10.1530/jrf.0.0290099.

Jones T, Cusack JJ, Pozo RA, Smit J, Mkuburo L, Baran P, Lobora AL, Mduma S, Foley C. 2018. Age structure as an indicator of poaching pressure: Insights from rapid assessments of elephant populations across space and time. Ecol Indic. 88:115–125. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2018.01.030.

Kalumanga E, Mpanduji DG, Cousins SAO. 2017. Geophagic termite mounds as one of the resources for African elephants in Ugalla Game Reserve, Western Tanzania. Afr J Ecol. 55(1):91–100. doi:10.1111/aje.12326.

Kamga SM, Tamungang SA, Awa T, Ewome FL, Motombi FN, Hořák D, Riegert J. 2022. The importance of forest elephants for vegetation structure modification and its influence on the bird community of a mid-elevation forest on Mount Cameroon, West-Central Africa. Diversity. 14(3):227. doi:10.3390/d14030227.

Kaufmann LV, Schneeweiß U, Maier E, Hildebrandt T, Brecht M. 2022. Elephant facial motor control. Sci Adv. 8(43):eabq2789. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abq2789.

Kely MR, Kouakou CY, Bene J-CK, Koffi AD, N’guessan KA, Tiedoue MR. 2019. Spatial distribution and period of activity of the forest elephant (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) at Taï National Park, south western Côte d’Ivoire. J Appl Biosci. 133(1):13542. doi:10.4314/jab.v133i1.6.

Kerr TJ, Van Heerden J, Goosen WJ, Kleynhans L, Buss PE, Latimer E, Miller MA. 2023. Detection of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) in free-ranging African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. J Wildl Dis. 59(1). doi:10.7589/JWD-D-22-00015.

Kier WM, Smith KK. 1985. Tongues, tentacles and trunks: the biomechanics of movement in muscular-hydrostats. Zool J Linn Soc. 83(4):307–324. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1985.tb01178.x.

Kikoti A, Griffin C, Pamphil L. 2010. Elephant use and conflict leads to Tanzania’s first wildlife conservation corridor. Pachyderm. 48:57–66.

King LE, Douglas-Hamilton I, Vollrath F. 2007. African elephants run from the sound of disturbed bees. Curr Biol. 17(19):R832–R833. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.07.038.

Kingdon J. 1979. East African mammals: an atlas of evolution in Africa. Vol. III, part B (large mammals). London: Academic Press Inc.; 436 pp.

Kioko J, Horton A, Libre M, Vickers J, Dressel E, Kasey H, Ndegeya PM, Gadiye D, Kissui B, Kiffner C. 2020. Distribution and abundance of African elephants in Ngorongoro Crater, northern Tanzania. Afr Zool. 55(4):303–310. doi:10.1080/15627020.2020.1813625.

Kioko J, Seno S. 2011. Elephant corridor use and threats in the eastern range of Amboseli elephants, Kenya. Pachyderm. 49:70–78.

Klaus G, Klaus-Hügi C, Schmid B. 1998. Geophagy by large mammals at natural licks in the rain forest of the Dzanga National Park, Central African Republic. J Trop Ecol. 14(06):829–839. doi:10.1017/S0266467498000595.

Koffi M, Andreopoulos Y, Jiji LM. 2014. The role of pinnae flapping motion on elephant metabolic heat dissipation. J Heat Transf. 136(10):101101. doi:10.1115/1.4027864.

Kohi EM, De Boer WF, Peel MJS, Slotow R, Van Der Waal C, Heitkönig IMA, Skidmore A, Prins HHT. 2011. African Elephants Loxodonta africana amplify browse heterogeneity in African savanna. Biotropica. 43(6):711–721. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2010.00724.x.

Kolowski JM, Blake S, Kock MD, Lee ME, Henderson A, Honorez A, Alonso A. 2010. Movements of four forest elephants in an oil concession in Gabon, Central Africa. Afr J Ecol. 48(4):1134–1138. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01204.x.

Kouakou J-L, Gonedelé Bi S, Bitty EA, Kouakou C, Yao AK, Kassé KB, Ouattara S. 2020. Ivory Coast without ivory: Massive extinction of African forest elephants in Côte d’Ivoire. Yue B-S, editor. PLOS ONE. 15(10):e0232993. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0232993.

Kramer R, Sawyer R, Amato S, LaFontaine P. 2017. The US elephant ivory market: a new baseline - wildlife trade report from TRAFFIC. Washington, DC: TRAFFIC. [accessed 2024 Nov 15]. https://www.traffic.org/publications/reports/trade-study-sets-new-baseline-for-monitoring-us-elephant-ivory-market/.

Krell F-T, Krell-Westerwalbesloh S. 2024. One elephant may sustain 2 million dung beetles in East African savannas on any given day. Sci Nat. 111(1):5. doi:10.1007/s00114-024-01894-9.

Kuiper T, Altwegg R, Beale C, Carroll T, Dublin HT, Hauenstein S, Kshatriya M, Schwarz C, Thouless CR, Royle A, et al. 2023. Drivers and facilitators of the illegal killing of elephants across 64 African sites. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci. 290(1990):20222270. doi:10.1098/rspb.2022.2270.

LaDue CA, Schulte BA, Kiso WK, Freeman EW. 2022. Musth and sexual selection in elephants: a review of signalling properties and potential fitness consequences. Behaviour. 159(3–4):207–242. doi:10.1163/1568539X-bja10120.

Laguardia A, Bourgeois S, Strindberg S, Gobush KS, Abitsi G, Bikang Bi Ateme HG, Ebouta F, Fay JM, Gopalaswamy AM, Maisels F, et al. 2021. Nationwide abundance and distribution of African forest elephants across Gabon using non-invasive SNP genotyping. Glob Ecol Conserv. 32:e01894. doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01894.

Lamps LW, Smoller BR, Rasmussen LEL, Slade BE, Fritsch G, Goodwin TE. 2001. Characterization of interdigital glands in the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Res Vet Sci. 71(3):197–200. doi:10.1053/rvsc.2001.0508.

Landolfi JA, Terrell SP. 2018. Proboscidae. In: Pathology of Wildlife and Zoo Animals. Elsevier. p. 413–431. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-805306-5.00016-X.

Langbauer WR. 2000. Elephant communication. Zoo Biol. 19(5):425–445.

Langbauer WR, Payne KB, Charif RA, Rapaport L, Osborn F. 1991. African elephants respond to distant playbacks of low-frequency conspecific calls. J Exp Biol. 157(1):35–46. doi:10.1242/jeb.157.1.35.

Laurance WF, Croes BM, Tchignoumba L, Lahm SA, Alonso A, Lee ME, Campbell P, Ondzeano C. 2006. Impacts of roads and hunting on central African rainforest mammals. Conserv Biol. 20(4):1251–1261. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00420.x.

Laws RM. 1966. Age criteria for the African elephant: Loxodonta a. africana. African Journal of Ecology. 4(1):1–37. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1966.tb00878.x.

Lee PC. 1987. Allomothering among African elephants. Anim Behav. 35(1):278–291. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(87)80234-8.

Lee PC, Bussière LF, Webber CE, Poole JH, Moss CJ. 2013. Enduring consequences of early experiences: 40 year effects on survival and success among African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Biol Lett. 9(2):20130011. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2013.0011.

Lee PC, Fishlock V, Webber CE, Moss CJ. 2016. The reproductive advantages of a long life: longevity and senescence in wild female African elephants. Behav Ecol Sociobiol. 70(3):337–345. doi:10.1007/s00265-015-2051-5.

Lee PC, Lindsay WK, Moss CJ. 2011. Ecological patterns of variability in demographic rates. In: Moss CJ, Croze H, Lee PC, editors. The Amboseli elephants: a long-term perspective on a long-lived mammal. University of Chicago Press. p. 74–88. [accessed 2024 Jan 16]. https://doi.org/10.7208/9780226542263-008.

Lee PC, Moss CJ. 1986. Early maternal investment in male and female African elephant calves. Behav Ecol Sociobiol. 18(5):353–361. doi:10.1007/BF00299666.

Lee PC, Moss CJ. 1999. The social context for learning and behavioural development among wild African elephants. In: Mammalian social learning: comparative and ecological perspectives. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press. p. 102–125.

Lee PC, Moss CJ. 2011. Calf development and maternal rearing strategies. In: Moss CJ, Croze H, Lee PC, editors. The amboseli elephants: a long-term perspective on a long-lived mammal. University of Chicago Press. p. 224–237. [accessed 2024 Jan 16]. https://doi.org/10.7208/9780226542263-016.

Lee PC, Moss CJ. 2014. African elephant play, competence and social complexity. Anim Behav Cogn. 2(2):144. doi:10.12966/abc.05.05.2014.

Lee PC, Poole JH, Njiraini N, Sayialel CN, Moss CJ. 2011. Male social dynamics: independence and beyond. In: Moss CJ, Croze H, Lee PC, editors. The Amboseli elephants: a long-term perspective on a long-lived mammal. University of Chicago Press. p. 260–271. [accessed 2024 Jan 30]. https://doi.org/10.7208/9780226542263-019.

Lee PC, Sayialel S, Lindsay WK, Moss CJ. 2012. African elephant age determination from teeth: validation from known individuals. African Journal of Ecology. 50(1):9–20. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2011.01286.x.

Leggett K. 2006. Effect of artificial water points on the movement and behaviour of desert-dwelling elephants of north-western Namibia. Pachyderm. 40:24–34. doi:10.69649/pachyderm.v40i1.1259.

Leggett K. 2009. Diurnal activities of the desert-dwelling elephants in northwestern Namibia. Pachyderm. 45:20–33.

Leggett K. 2010. Daily and hourly movement of male desert‐dwelling elephants. Afr J Ecol. 48(1):197–205. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01101.x.

Leggett K, Brown L, Ramey R. 2011. Matriarchal associations and reproduction in a remnant subpopulation of desert-dwelling elephants in Namibia. Pachyderm. 49:20–32.

Leighty KA, Soltis J, Wesolek CM, Savage A. 2008. Rumble vocalizations mediate interpartner distance in African elephants, Loxodonta africana. Anim Behav. 76(5):1601–1608. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.06.022.

Leimgruber P, Songer MA. 2021. Conservation: Where can elephants roam in the Anthropocene? Curr Biol. 31(11):R714–R716. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2021.04.037.

Lemieux AM, Clarke RV. 2009. The international ban on ivory sales and its effects on elephant poaching in Africa. Br J Criminol. 49(4):451–471. doi:10.1093/bjc/azp030.

Leong K. M., Ortolani A, Burks KD, Mellen JD, Savage A. 2003. Quantifying acoustic and temporal characteristics of vocalizations for a group of captive African elephants Loxodonta africana. Bioacoustics. 13(3):213–231. doi:10.1080/09524622.2003.9753499.

Leong K.M, Ortolani A, Graham LH, Savage A. 2003. The use of low-frequency vocalizations in African elephant (Loxodonta africana) reproductive strategies. Horm Behav. 43(4):433–443. doi:10.1016/S0018-506X(03)00025-4.

Levick SR, Asner GP, Kennedy-Bowdoin T, Knapp DE. 2010. The spatial extent of termite influences on herbivore browsing in an African savanna. Biol Conserv. 143(11):2462–2467. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2010.06.012.

Liew JH, Kho ZY, Lim RBH, Dingle C, Bonebrake TC, Sung YH, Dudgeon D. 2021. International socioeconomic inequality drives trade patterns in the global wildlife market. Sci Adv. 7(19):eabf7679. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abf7679.

Lillywhite HB, Stein BR. 1987. Surface sculpturing and water retention of elephant skin. J Zool. 211(4):727–734. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1987.tb04483.x.

Lindsay WK. 2011. Habitat use, diet choice, and nutritional status in female and male Amboseli elephants. In: Moss CJ, Croze H, Lee PC, editors. The Amboseli elephants: a long-term perspective on a long-lived mammal. University of Chicago Press. p. 51–73. [accessed 2024 Jan 12]. https://doi.org/10.7208/9780226542263-007.

Liscaljet N. 2012. Napakaliit trompa: New pygmy proboscidean remains from the Cagayan Valley (Philippines). Quat Int. 276–277:278–286. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2012.02.025.

Loarie SR, Aarde RJV, Pimm SL. 2009. Fences and artificial water affect African savannah elephant movement patterns. Biol Conserv. 142(12):3086–3098. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2009.08.008.

Loarie SR, Van Aarde RJ, Pimm SL. 2009. Elephant seasonal vegetation preferences across dry and wet savannas. Biol Conserv. 142(12):3099–3107. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2009.08.021.

Long SY, Latimer EM, Hayward GS. 2016. Review of elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses and acute hemorrhagic disease. ILAR J. 56(3):283–296. doi:10.1093/ilar/ilv041.

Loveridge AJ, Hunt JE, Murindagomo F, Macdonald DW. 2006. Influence of drought on predation of elephant (Loxodonta africana) calves by lions (Panthera leo) in an African wooded savannah. J Zool. 270(3):523–530. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00181.x.

Lueders I, Niemuller C, Rich P, Gray C, Hermes R, Goeritz F, Hildebrandt TB. 2012. Gestating for 22 months: luteal development and pregnancy maintenance in elephants. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci. 279(1743):3687–3696. doi:10.1098/rspb.2012.1038.

Maisels F, Strindberg S, Blake S, Wittemyer G, Hart J, Williamson EA, Aba’a R, Abitsi G, Ambahe RD, Amsini F, et al. 2013. Devastating decline of forest elephants in Central Africa. Kolokotronis S-O, editor. PLOS ONE. 8(3):e59469. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059469.

Maseko BC, Spocter MA, Haagensen M, Manger PR. 2012. Elephants have relatively the largest cerebellum size of mammals. Anat Rec. 295(4):661–672. doi:10.1002/ar.22425.

Masunga GS, Andresen Ø, Taylor JE, Dhillion SS. 2006. Elephant dung decomposition and coprophilous fungi in two habitats of semi-arid Botswana. Mycological Research. 110(10):1214–1226. doi:10.1016/j.mycres.2006.07.004.

Matsa M, Shuche C, Musasa T, Defe R. 2022. Surface water distribution challenges and elephant impacts on woody species in Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe. Trop Ecol. 63(4):604–614. doi:10.1007/s42965-022-00240-2.

Matsika TA, Adjetay JA, Obopile M, Songhurst AC, McCulloch G, Stronza A. 2020. Alternative crops as a mitigation measure for elephant crop raiding in the eastern Okavango Panhandle. Pachyderm. 61:140–152.

McComb K, Baker L, Moss C. 2006. African elephants show high levels of interest in the skulls and ivory of their own species. Biol Lett. 2(1):26–28. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2005.0400.

McComb K, Moss C, Durant SM, Baker L, Sayialel S. 2001. Matriarchs as repositories of social knowledge in African elephants. Science. 292(5516):491–494. doi:10.1126/science.1057895.

McComb K, Moss C, Sayialel S, Baker L. 2000. Unusually extensive networks of vocal recognition in African elephants. Anim Behav. 59(6):1103–1109. doi:10.1006/anbe.2000.1406.

McComb K, Reby D, Baker L, Moss C, Sayialel S. 2003. Long-distance communication of acoustic cues to social identity in African elephants. Anim Behav. 65(2):317–329. doi:10.1006/anbe.2003.2047.

McComb K, Reby D, Moss CJ. 2011. Vocal communication and social knowledge in African elephants. In: Moss CJ, Croze H, Lee PC, editors. The Amboseli elephants: a long-term perspective on a long-lived mammal. University of Chicago Press. p. 162–173. [accessed 2024 Jan 12]. https://doi.org/10.7208/9780226542263-012.

McComb K, Shannon G, Durant SM, Sayialel K, Slotow R, Poole J, Moss C. 2011. Leadership in elephants: the adaptive value of age. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci. 278(1722):3270–3276. doi:10.1098/rspb.2011.0168.

McComb K, Shannon G, Sayialel KN, Moss C. 2014. Elephants can determine ethnicity, gender, and age from acoustic cues in human voices. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 111(14):5433–5438. doi:10.1073/pnas.1321543111.

McKnight BL. 2015. Relationship between group dynamics and spatial distribution of African elephants in a semi-arid environment. Afr J Ecol. 53(4):439–446. doi:10.1111/aje.12223.

Mekbeb ET, Kumara W, Addisu A. 2019. Threats and their relative severity and driving forces in the African elephant range wildlife protected areas of Ethiopia. Int J Biodivers Conserv. 11(7):187–198. doi:10.5897/IJBC2019.1298.

Miao Z, Wang Q, Cui X, Conrad K, Ji W, Zhang W, Zhou X, Craig MacMillan D. 2022. The dynamics of the illegal ivory trade and the need for stronger global governance. J Int Wildl Law Policy. 25(1):84–96. doi:10.1080/13880292.2022.2077393.

Michelmore F, Beardsley K, Barnes RFW, Douglas‐Hamilton I. 1994. A model illustrating the changes in forest elephant numbers caused by poaching. Afr J Ecol. 32(2):89–99. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1994.tb00561.x.

Miller AK, Hensman MC, Hensman S, Schultz K, Reid P, Shore M, Brown J, Furton KG, Lee S. 2015. African elephants (Loxodonta africana) can detect TNT using olfaction: Implications for biosensor application. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. 171:177–183. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2015.08.003.

Miller MA, Buss P, Roos EO, Hausler G, Dippenaar A, Mitchell E, Van Schalkwyk L, Robbe-Austerman S, Waters WR, Sikar-Gang A, et al. 2019. Fatal tuberculosis in a free-ranging African elephant and One Health implications of human pathogens in wildlife. Front Vet Sci. 6:18. doi:10.3389/fvets.2019.00018.

Miller MA, Kerr TJ, De Waal CR, Goosen WJ, Streicher EM, Hausler G, Rossouw L, Manamela T, Van Schalkwyk L, Kleynhans L, et al. 2021. Mycobacterium bovis infection in free-ranging African elephants. Emerg Infect Dis. 27(3):990–992. doi:10.3201/eid2703.204729.

Milliken T, Burn RW, Underwood FM, Sangalakula L. 2004. The Elephant Trade Information System (ETIS) and the Illicit Trade in Ivory: A report to the 13th meeting of the Conference of the Parties to CITES. Cambridge (UK): TRAFFIC. [accessed 2024 Nov 1]. https://cites.org/sites/default/files/common/cop/13/inf/E13-29-2A.pdf.

Mills EC, Poulsen JR, Fay JM, Morkel P, Clark CJ, Meier A, Beirne C, White LJT. 2018. Forest elephant movement and habitat use in a tropical forest-grassland mosaic in Gabon. Cameron EZ, editor. PLOS ONE. 13(7):e0199387. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0199387.

Milner-Gulland E, Beddington J. 1993. The relative effects of hunting and habitat destruction on elephant population dynamics over time. Pachyderm. 17:75–90. doi:10.69649/pachyderm.v17i1.786.

Mole MA, Rodrigues DÁraujo S, Van Aarde RJ, Mitchell D, Fuller A. 2016. Coping with heat: behavioural and physiological responses of savanna elephants in their natural habitat. Conserv Physiol. 4(1):cow044. doi:10.1093/conphys/cow044.

Molina‐Vacas G, Muñoz‐Mas R, Martínez‐Capel F, Rodriguez‐Teijeiro JD, Le Fohlic G. 2020. Movement patterns of forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis Matschie, 1900) in the Odzala‐Kokoua National Park, Republic of Congo. Afr J Ecol. 58(1):23–33. doi:10.1111/aje.12695.

Monadjem A, Garcelon DK. 2005. Nesting distribution of vultures in relation to land use in Swaziland. Biodivers Conserv. 14(9):2079–2093. doi:10.1007/s10531-004-4358-9.

Mondol S, Mailand CR, Wasser SK. 2014. Male biased sex ratio of poached elephants is negatively related to poaching intensity over time. Conserv Genet. 15(5):1259–1263. doi:10.1007/s10592-014-0603-2.

Montero-Botey M, San Miguel A, Perea R. 2021. Food preferences determine human–elephant coexistence in African woodlands. Oryx. 55(5):747–754. doi:10.1017/S0030605319000978.

Morris‐Drake A, Mumby HS. 2018. Social associations and vocal communication in wild and captive male savannah elephants Loxodonta africana. Mammal Rev. 48(1):24–36. doi:10.1111/mam.12106.

Morrison TA, Holdo RM, Anderson TM. 2016. Elephant damage, not fire or rainfall, explains mortality of overstorey trees in Serengeti. J Ecol. 104(2):409–418. doi:10.1111/1365-2745.12517.

Mortimer B, Walker JA, Lolchuragi DS, Reinwald M, Daballen D. 2021. Noise matters: elephants show risk-avoidance behaviour in response to human-generated seismic cues. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci. 288(1953):20210774. doi:10.1098/rspb.2021.0774.

Moss C. 1992. Echo of the elephants : the story of an elephant family. London (England): BCA.

Moss C, Fishlock V, Lee P. 2019. Twinning in the Amboseli elephant population. Pachyderm. 60:118–119.

Moss CJ. 1983. Oestrous behaviour and female choice in the African elephant. Behaviour. 86(3–4):167–195. doi:10.1163/156853983X00354.

Moss CJ, Lee PC. 2011. Female reproductive strategies: individual life histories. In: Moss CJ, Croze H, Lee PC, editors. The Amboseli elephants: a long-term perspective on a long-lived mammal. University of Chicago Press. p. 187–204.

Moss CJ, Lee PC. 2011b. Female social dynamics: fidelity and flexibility. In: Moss CJ, Croze H, Lee PC, editors. The Amboseli elephants: a long-term perspective on a long-lived mammal. University of Chicago Press. p. 205–223.

Moss CJ, Poole JH. 1983. Relationships and social structure of African elephants. In: Hinde RA, Berman CM, editors. Primate social relationships: an integrated approach. Oxford (UK): Blackwell Scientific Publications. p. 315–325.

Mpakairi KS, Ndaimani H, Tagwireyi P, Zvidzai M, Madiri TH. 2020. Futuristic climate change scenario predicts a shrinking habitat for the African elephant (Loxodonta africana): evidence from Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. Eur J Wildl Res. 66(1):1. doi:10.1007/s10344-019-1327-x.

Mubalama L, Sikubwabo K. 2002. Rate of decay of elephant dung in the central sector of Parc National des Virunga, Democratic Republic of Congo. Pachyderm. 33:43–49. doi:10.69649/pachyderm.v33i1.1109.

Mukeka JM, Ogutu JO, Kanga E, Piepho H-P, Røskaft E. 2022. Long-term trends in elephant mortality and their causes in Kenya. Front Conserv Sci. 3:975682. doi:10.3389/fcosc.2022.975682.

Murphy D, Mumby HS, Henley MD. 2019. Age differences in the temporal stability of a male African elephant (Loxodonta africana) social network. Griffin A, editor. Behav Ecol.:arz152. doi:10.1093/beheco/arz152.

Mutinda H, Poole JH, Moss CJ. 2011. Decision making and leadership in using the ecosystem. In: Moss CJ, Croze H, Lee PC, editors. The Amboseli elephants: a long-term perspective on a long-lived mammal. University of Chicago Press. p. 246–259. [accessed 2024 Jan 12]. https://doi.org/10.7208/9780226542263-018.

Nagel RM, Forstenpointner G, Soley JT, Weissengruber GE. 2018. Muscles and fascial elements of the antebrachium and manus of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana, Blumenbach 1797): starring comparative and functional considerations. Anat Histol Embryol. 47(3):195–205. doi:10.1111/ahe.12340.

Nasseri NA, McBrayer LD, Schulte BA. 2011. The impact of tree modification by African elephant (Loxodonta africana) on herpetofaunal species richness in northern Tanzania: Impact of African elephants on herpetofauna. Afr J Ecol. 49(2):133–140. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2010.01238.x.

Nchanji AC, Plumptre AJ. 2003. Seed germination and early seedling establishment of some elephant-dispersed species in Banyang-Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary, south-western Cameroon. J Trop Ecol. 19(3):229–237. doi:10.1017/S0266467403003262.

Ndlovu M, Madiri TH, Madhlamoto D, Tadyanehondo KM, Vambe A, Mungoni E. 2023. Age-sex structure of drought-driven African elephant (Loxodonta africana) mortality in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. Sci Afr. 19:e01459. doi:10.1016/j.sciaf.2022.e01459.

Nellemann C (Christian), Formo RK, Blanc JJ, Skinner D, Milliken T, De Meulenaer T, editors. 2013. Elephants in the dust: the African elephant crisis : a rapid response assessment. GRID-Arendal. [accessed 2024 Jan 16]. https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/10345.

Ngene SM, Van Gils H, Van Wieren SE, Rasmussen H, Skidmore AK, Prins HHT, Toxopeus AG, Omondi P, Douglas‐Hamilton I. 2010. The ranging patterns of elephants in Marsabit protected area, Kenya: the use of satellite‐linked GPS collars. Afr J Ecol. 48(2):386–400. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01125.x.

Nishihara T. 2012. Demand for forest elephant ivory in Japan. Pachyderm. 52:55–65.

Nkape K, Moswete NN, Jerusalem LJ. 2022. Assessment of elephant poaching in rural communities: case studies of four villages in the Okavango Delta Area, Northern Botswana. J Stud Humanit Soc Sci. 11(1 & 2):117–135.

Nowak RM. 1999. Walker's mammals of the world, 6th edition. Baltimore (MD): Johns Hopkins University Press.

Nowak R. 2018. Order Proboscidea. In: Walker’s mammals of the world. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 463–536. [accessed 2023 Jun 20]. https://muse.jhu.edu/book/59141.

Nuzzo MC, Traill LW. 2014. What 50 years of trophy records illustrate for hunted African elephant and bovid populations. Afr J Ecol. 52(2):250–253. doi:10.1111/aje.12104.

Nyakaana S, Abe EL, Arctander P, Siegismund HR. 2001. DNA evidence for elephant social behaviour breakdown in Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda. Anim Conserv. 4(3):231–237. doi:10.1017/S1367943001001275.

Nyirenda VR, Phiri D, Chomba C. 2023. Identifying multiple wildlife species-crop interactions using network analysis. J Nat Conserv. 71:126329. doi:10.1016/j.jnc.2022.126329.

O’Connell C, Hart LA, Arnason BT. 1999. Comments on “Elephant hearing” [J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 104, 1122–1123 (1998)]. J Acoust Soc Am. 105(3):2051–2052. doi:10.1121/1.426748.

O’Connell CE, Arnason BT, Hart LA. 1997. Seismic transmission of elephant vocalizations and movement. J Acoust Soc Am. 102(5_Supplement):3124–3124. doi:10.1121/1.420597.

O’Connell-Rodwell C, Guan X, Puria S. 2019. Vibrational communication in elephants: a case for bone conduction. In: Hill PSM, Lakes-Harlan R, Mazzoni V, Narins PM, Virant-Doberlet M, Wessel A, editors. Biotremology: Studying Vibrational Behavior. Vol. 6. Cham: Springer International Publishing. (Animal Signals and Communication). p. 259–276. [accessed 2023 Nov 21]. https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-22293-2_13.

O’Connell-Rodwell CE. 2007. Keeping an “ear” to the ground: seismic communication in elephants. Physiology. 22(4):287–294. doi:10.1152/physiol.00008.2007.

O’Connell-Rodwell CE, Berezin JL, Pignatelli A, Rodwell TC. 2024. The use of vocal coordination in male African elephant group departures: evidence of active leadership and consensus. PeerJ. 12:e17767. doi:10.7717/peerj.17767.

O’Connell-Rodwell CE, Hart LA, Arnason BT. 2001. Exploring the potential use of seismic waves as a communication channel by elephants and other large mammals. Am Zool. 41(5):1157–1170. doi:10.1093/icb/41.5.1157.

O’Connell-Rodwell CE, Wood JD, Kinzley C, Rodwell TC, Alarcon C, Wasser SK, Sapolsky R. 2011. Male African elephants (Loxodonta africana) queue when the stakes are high. Ethol Ecol Evol. 23(4):388–397. doi:10.1080/03949370.2011.598569.

O’Connell-Rodwell CE, Wood JD, Rodwell TC, Puria S, Partan SR, Keefe R, Shriver D, Arnason BT, Hart LA. 2006. Wild elephant (Loxodonta africana) breeding herds respond to artificially transmitted seismic stimuli. Behav Ecol Sociobiol. 59(6):842–850. doi:10.1007/s00265-005-0136-2.

O’Connell-Rodwell CE, Wood JD, Wyman M, Redfield S, Puria S, Hart LA. 2012. Antiphonal vocal bouts associated with departures in free-ranging African elephant family groups (Loxodonta africana). Bioacoustics. 21(3):215–224. doi:10.1080/09524622.2012.686166.

Ogada D, Botha A, Shaw P. 2016. Ivory poachers and poison: drivers of Africa’s declining vulture populations. Oryx. 50(4):593–596. doi:10.1017/S0030605315001209.

Omeja PA, Jacob AL, Lawes MJ, Lwanga JS, Rothman JM, Tumwesigye C, Chapman CA. 2014. Changes in elephant abundance affect forest composition or regeneration? Biotropica. 46(6):704–711. doi:10.1111/btp.12154.

Orrick KD. 2018. Range size and drivers of African elephant (Loxodonta africana) space use on Karongwe Private Game Reserve, South Africa. Afr J Ecol. 56(3):572–581. doi:10.1111/aje.12500.

Owens MJ, Owens D. 2009. Early age reproduction in female savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) after severe poaching. Afr J Ecol. 47(2):214–222. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2008.01001.x.

Owen-Smith N, Chafota J. 2012. Selective feeding by a megaherbivore, the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). J Mammal. 93(3):698–705. doi:10.1644/11-MAMM-A-350.1.

Owen-Smith RN. 1988. Megaherbivores: the influence of very large body size on ecology. Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press (Cambridge studies in ecology).

Palkopoulou E, Lipson M, Mallick S, Nielsen S, Rohland N, Baleka S, Karpinski E, Ivancevic AM, To T-H, Kortschak RD, et al. 2018. A comprehensive genomic history of extinct and living elephants. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 115(11). doi:10.1073/pnas.1720554115.

Panagiotopoulou O, Pataky TC, Day M, Hensman MC, Hensman S, Hutchinson JR, Clemente CJ. 2016. Foot pressure distributions during walking in African elephants (Loxodonta africana). R Soc Open Sci. 3(10):160203. doi:10.1098/rsos.160203.

Pandraud A, Shrader AM, Tshipa A, Ngwenya N, Chamaillé-Jammes S. 2022. Cueing on distant conditions before migrating does not prevent false starts: a case study with African elephants. Oecologia. 198(4):957–966. doi:10.1007/s00442-022-05148-1.

Pardo MA, Lolchuragi DS, Poole J, Granli P, Moss C, Douglas-Hamilton I, Wittemyer G. 2024. Female African elephant rumbles differ between populations and sympatric social groups. R Soc Open Sci. 11(9):241264. doi:10.1098/rsos.241264.

Parker JM, Webb CT, Daballen D, Goldenberg SZ, Lepirei J, Letitiya D, Lolchuragi D, Leadismo C, Douglas-Hamilton I, Wittemyer G. 2021. Poaching of African elephants indirectly decreases population growth through lowered orphan survival. Curr Biol. 31(18):4156-4162.e5. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2021.06.091.

Parker JM, Wittemyer G. 2022. Orphaning stunts growth in wild African elephants. Conservation Physiology. 10(1):coac053. doi:10.1093/conphys/coac053.

Paul G. 2009. The nearly columnar limbs of elephants are very different from the more flexed, spring action limbs of running mammals and birds. J Exp Biol. 212(1):152–153. doi:10.1242/jeb.024661.

Payne KB, Langbauer WR, Thomas EM. 1986. Infrasonic calls of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Behav Ecol Sociobiol. 18(4):297–301. doi:10.1007/BF00300007.

Payne KB, Thompson M, Kramer L. 2003. Elephant calling patterns as indicators of group size and composition: the basis for an acoustic monitoring system. Afr J Ecol. 41(1):99–107. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2028.2003.00421.x.

Permata IM, Wahyuni E. 2020. Behind the ivory trade shutdown in China. J Int Wildl Law Policy. 23(3):151–165. doi:10.1080/13880292.2020.1825055.

Perry JS. 1953. The reproduction of the African elephant, Loxodonta africana. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 237, 643:93–149. http://www.jstor.org/stable/92420.

Pettigrew JD, Bhagwandin A, Haagensen M, Manger PR. 2010. Visual acuity and heterogeneities of retinal ganglion cell densities and the tapetum lucidum of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Brain Behav Evol. 75(4):251–261. doi:10.1159/000314898.

Phillips PK, Heath JE. 1992. Heat exchange by the pinna of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Comp Biochem Physiol A Physiol. 101(4):693–699. doi:10.1016/0300-9629(92)90345-Q.

Pinter-Wollman N, Isbell LA, Hart LA. 2009. Assessing translocation outcome: comparing behavioral and physiological aspects of translocated and resident African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Biol Conserv. 142(5):1116–1124. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2009.01.027.

Plotka ED, Seal US, Zarembka FR, Simmons LG, Teare A, Phillips LG, Hinshaw KC, Wood DG. 1988. Ovarian function in the elephant: luteinizing hormone and progesterone cycles in African and Asian elephants. Biology of Reproduction. 38(2):309–314. doi:10.1095/biolreprod38.2.309.

Polansky L, Kilian W, Wittemyer G. 2015. Elucidating the significance of spatial memory on movement decisions by African savannah elephants using state–space models. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci. 282(1805):20143042. doi:10.1098/rspb.2014.3042.

Poole J. 1996. Coming of age with elephants: a memoir. 1st ed. New York: Hyperion.

Poole J, Granli P. 2022. The Gorongosa elephants through war and recovery: Tusklessness, population size, structure and reproductive parameters. Pachyderm. 63:38–54.

Poole J, Kahumbu P, Whyte I. 2013. Loxodonta africana, African savannah elephant (African bush elephant). In: Mammals of Africa. Volume I: introductory chapters and Afrotheria. New York (NY): Bloomsbury. (Kingdon J, Happold DCD, Butynski TM, Hoffman M, Happold M, Kalina J, editors). p. 181–194.

Poole JH. 1987. Rutting behavior in African elephants: the phenomenon of musth. Behaviour. 102(3–4):283–316. doi:10.1163/156853986X00171.

Poole JH. 1989a. Announcing intent: the aggressive state of musth in African elephants. Anim Behav. 37:140–152. doi:10.1016/0003-3472(89)90014-6.

Poole JH. 1989b. Mate guarding, reproductive success and female choice in African elephants. Anim Behav. 37:842–849. doi:10.1016/0003-3472(89)90068-7.

Poole JH. 2011. Behavioral contexts of elephant acoustic communication. In: Moss CJ, Croze H, Lee PC, editors. The Amboseli elephants: a long-term perspective on a long-lived mammal. University of Chicago Press. p. 125–161. [accessed 2024 Jan 31]. https://doi.org/10.7208/9780226542263-020.

Poole JH, Cobb S. 1989. The effects of poaching on the age structure and social and reproductive patterns of selected East African elephant populations. Oxford: Ivory Trade Review Group, International Development Centre.

Poole JH, Granli P. 2011. Signals, gestures, and behavior of African elephants. In: Moss CJ, Croze H, Lee PC, editors. The Amboseli elephants: a long-term perspective on a long-lived mammal. Chicago (IL): University of Chicago Press. p. 109–124. [accessed 2024 Jan 31]. https://doi.org/10.7208/9780226542263-020.

Poole JH, Kasman LH, Ramsay EC, Lasley BL. 1984. Musth and urinary testosterone concentrations in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Reproduction. 70(1):255–260. doi:10.1530/jrf.0.0700255.

Poole JH, Lee PC, Njiraini N, Moss CJ. 2011. Longevity, competition, and musth: a long-term perspective on male reproductive strategies. In: Moss CJ, Croze H, Lee PC, editors. The Amboseli elephants: a long-term perspective on a long-lived mammal. University of Chicago Press. p. 272–288. [accessed 2024 Jan 31]. https://doi.org/10.7208/9780226542263-020.

Poole JH, Moss CJ. 1981. Musth in the African elephant, Loxodonta africana. Nature. 292(5826):830–831. doi:10.1038/292830a0.

Poole JH, Payne K, Langbauer WR, Moss CJ. 1988. The social contexts of some very low frequency calls of African elephants. Behav Ecol Sociobiol. 22(6):385–392.

Poole JH, Thomsen JB. 1989. Elephant are not beetles: implications of the ivory trade for the survival of the African elephant. Oryx. 23(4):188–198. doi:10.1017/S0030605300023012.

Poole JH, Tyack PL, Stoeger-Horwath AS, Watwood S. 2005. Elephants are capable of vocal learning. Nature. 434(7032):455–456. doi:10.1038/434455a.

Poulsen JR, Beirne C, Rundel C, Baldino M, Kim S, Knorr J, Minich T, Jin L, Núñez CL, Xiao S, et al. 2021. Long distance seed dispersal by forest elephants. Front Ecol Evol. 9:789264. doi:10.3389/fevo.2021.789264.

Poulsen JR, Clark CJ, Bolker BM. 2011. Decoupling the effects of logging and hunting on an Afrotropical animal community. Ecol Appl. 21(5):1819–1836. doi:10.1890/10-1083.1.

Poulsen JR, Koerner SE, Moore S, Medjibe VP, Blake S, Clark CJ, Akou ME, Fay M, Meier A, Okouyi J, et al. 2017. Poaching empties critical Central African wilderness of forest elephants. Curr Biol. 27(4):R134–R135. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.01.023.

Poulsen JR, Rosin C, Meier A, Mills E, Nuñez CL, Koerner SE, Blanchard E, Callejas J, Moore S, Sowers M. 2018. Ecological consequences of forest elephant declines for Afrotropical forests. Conserv Biol. 32(3):559–567. doi:10.1111/cobi.13035.

Power RJ, Shem Compion RX. 2009. Lion predation on elephants in the Savuti, Chobe National Park, Botswana. Afr Zool. 44(1):36–44. doi:10.3377/004.044.0104.

Pozo RA, Cusack JJ, McCulloch G, Stronza A, Songhurst A, Coulson T. 2018. Elephant space-use is not a good predictor of crop-damage. Biol Conserv. 228:241–251. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2018.10.031.

Presotto A, Fayrer-Hosken R, Curry C, Madden M. 2019. Spatial mapping shows that some African elephants use cognitive maps to navigate the core but not the periphery of their home ranges. Anim Cogn. 22(2):251–263. doi:10.1007/s10071-019-01242-9.

Pretorius Y, De Boer WF, Kortekaas K, Van Wijngaarden M, Grant RC, Kohi EM, Mwakiwa E, Slotow R, Prins HHT. 2016. Why elephant have trunks and giraffe long tongues: how plants shape large herbivore mouth morphology. Acta Zool. 97(2):246–254. doi:10.1111/azo.12121.

Pretorius Y, Garaï ME, Bates LA. 2019. The status of African elephant Loxodonta africana populations in South Africa. Oryx. 53(4):757–763. doi:10.1017/S0030605317001454.

Purkart L, Tuff JM, Shah M, Kaufmann LV, Altringer C, Maier E, Schneeweiß U, Tunckol E, Eigen L, Holtze S, et al. 2022. Trigeminal ganglion and sensory nerves suggest tactile specialization of elephants. Curr Biol. 32(4):904-910.e3. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2021.12.051.

Rabanal LI, Kuehl HS, Mundry R, Robbins MM, Boesch C. 2010. Oil prospecting and its impact on large rainforest mammals in Loango National Park, Gabon. Biol Conserv. 143(4):1017–1024. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2010.01.017.

Rasmussen LEL, Schulte BA. 1998. Chemical signals in the reproduction of Asian (Elephas maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants. Anim Reprod Sci. 53(1–4):19–34. doi:10.1016/S0378-4320(98)00124-9.

Remmers W, Gameiro J, Schaberl I, Clausnitzer V. 2017. Elephant (Loxodonta africana) footprints as habitat for aquatic macroinvertebrate communities in Kibale National Park, south-west Uganda. Afr J Ecol. 55(3):342–351. doi:10.1111/aje.12358.

Reyna-Hurtado R, Melletti M, Mukasa M, Omeja PA, Keeble D, Georgiev AV, Shannon G, Chapman CA. 2023. Elephant movements, abundance, and use of water sources in Kibale National Park, Uganda. In: Reyna-Hurtado R, Chapman CA, Melletti M, editors. Movement Ecology of Afrotropical Forest Mammals. Cham: Springer International Publishing. p. 59–78. [accessed 2023 Nov 17]. https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-27030-7_4.

Rice DW. 1963. Birds associating with elephants and hippopotamuses [in General Notes]. The Auk 80(2):196-197.

Riddle HS, Schulte BA, Desai AA, Meer LVD. 2010. Elephants - a conservation overview. J Threat Taxa. 2(1):653–661. doi:10.11609/JoTT.o2024.653-61.

Ripple WJ, Newsome TM, Wolf C, Dirzo R, Everatt KT, Galetti M, Hayward MW, Kerley GIH, Levi T, Lindsey PA, et al. 2015. Collapse of the world’s largest herbivores. Sci Adv. 1(4):e1400103. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1400103.

Roca AL, Ishida Y, Brandt AL, Benjamin NR, Zhao K, Georgiadis NJ. 2015. Elephant natural history: a genomic perspective. Annu Rev Anim Biosci. 3(1):139–167. doi:10.1146/annurev-animal-022114-110838.

Rode KD, Chiyo PI, Chapman CA, McDowell LR. 2006. Nutritional ecology of elephants in Kibale National Park, Uganda, and its relationship with crop-raiding behaviour. J Trop Ecol. 22(4):441–449. doi:10.1017/S0266467406003233.

Roever CL, Van Aarde RJ, Leggett K. 2012. Functional responses in the habitat selection of a generalist mega‐herbivore, the African savannah elephant. Ecography. 35(11):972–982. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2012.07359.x.

Roever CL, Van Aarde RJ, Leggett K. 2013. Functional connectivity within conservation networks: Delineating corridors for African elephants. Biol Conserv. 157:128–135. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2012.06.025.

Rohland N, Reich D, Mallick S, Meyer M, Green RE, Georgiadis NJ, Roca AL, Hofreiter M. 2010. Genomic dna sequences from mastodon and woolly mammoth reveal deep speciation of forest and savanna elephants. Penny D, editor. PLOS Biol. 8(12):e1000564. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000564.

Roth HH, Douglas-Hamilton I. 1991. Distribution and status of elephants in West Africa. Mammalia. 55(4):489–528. doi:10.1515/mamm.1991.55.4.489.

Roux C, Bernard RTF. 2009. Home range size, spatial distribution and habitat use of elephants in two enclosed game reserves in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Afr J Ecol. 47(2):146–153. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2007.00896.x.

Ruggiero RG. 1992. Seasonal forage utilization by elephants in central Africa. African Journal of Ecology. 30(2):137–148. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1992.tb00487.x.

Ruggiero RG, Eves HÉ. 1998. Bird–mammal associations in forest openings of northern Congo (Brazzaville). African Journal of Ecology. 36(2):183–193. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.00128.x.

Ruggiero RG, Fay JM. 1994. Utilization of termitarium soils by elephants and its ecological implications. Afr J Ecol. 32(3):222–232. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1994.tb00573.x.

Rushworth IA, Druce D, Craigie J, Coverdale B. 2018. Vulnerability of vulture populations to elephant impacts in KwaZulu-Natal. Bothalia. 48(1). doi:10.4102/abc.v48i2.2327. [accessed 2023 Nov 21]. https://journals.abcjournal.aosis.co.za/index.php/abc/article/view/2327.

Sach F, Dierenfeld ES, Langley-Evans SC, Watts MJ, Yon L. 2019. African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) as an example of a herbivore making movement choices based on nutritional needs. PeerJ. 7:e6260. doi:10.7717/peerj.6260.

Saegusa H. 2008. Dwarf Stegolophodon from the Miocene of Japan: Passengers on sinking boats. Quat Int. 182(1):49–62. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2007.08.001.

Scalbert M, Vermeulen C, Breuer T, Doucet J. 2023. The challenging coexistence of forest elephants Loxodonta cyclotis and timber concessions in central Africa. Mammal Rev. 53(1):15–31. doi:10.1111/mam.12305.

Schlossberg S, Chase MJ, Gobush KS, Wasser SK, Lindsay K. 2020. State-space models reveal a continuing elephant poaching problem in most of Africa. Sci Rep. 10(1):10166. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-66906-w.

Schlossberg S, Chase MJ, Griffin CR. 2018. Poaching and human encroachment reverse recovery of African savannah elephants in south-east Angola despite 14 years of peace. PLOS ONE. 13(3):e0193469. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0193469.

Schlossberg S, Chase MJ, Sutcliffe R. 2019. Evidence of a growing elephant poaching problem in Botswana. Curr Biol. 29(13):2222-2228.e4. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2019.05.061.

Schulz AK, Boyle M, Boyle C, Sordilla S, Rincon C, Hooper S, Aubuchon C, Reidenberg JS, Higgins C, Hu DL. 2022. Skin wrinkles and folds enable asymmetric stretch in the elephant trunk. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 119(31):e2122563119. doi:10.1073/pnas.2122563119.

Schulz AK, Ning Wu J, Ha SYS, Kim G, Braccini Slade S, Rivera S, Reidenberg JS, Hu DL. 2021. Suction feeding by elephants. J R Soc Interface. 18(179):20210215. doi:10.1098/rsif.2021.0215.

Schuttler SG, Blake S, Eggert LS. 2012. Movement patterns and spatial relationships among African forest elephants. Biotropica. 44(4):445–448. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7429.2012.00889.x.

Schuttler SG, Philbrick JA, Jeffery KJ, Eggert LS. 2014. Fine-scale genetic structure and cryptic associations reveal evidence of kin-based sociality in the African forest elephant. Wade C, editor. PLOS ONE. 9(2):e88074. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0088074.

Schuttler SG, Whittaker A, Jeffery KJ, Eggert LS. 2014. African forest elephant social networks: fission-fusion dynamics, but fewer associations. Endanger Species Res. 25(2):165–173. doi:10.3354/esr00618.

Scogings PF, Johansson T, Hjältén J, Kruger J. 2012. Responses of woody vegetation to exclusion of large herbivores in semi‐arid savannas. Austral Ecol. 37(1):56–66. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.2011.02249.x.

Shadrack N, Moses MO, Joseph M, Shadrack M, Steve N, James I. 2017. Home range sizes and space use of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in the Southern Kenya and Northern Tanzania borderland landscape. Int J Biodivers Conserv. 9(1):9–26. doi:10.5897/IJBC2016.1033.

Shannon G, Cordes LS, Slotow R, Moss C, McComb K. 2022. Social disruption impairs predatory threat assessment in African elephants. Animals. 12(4):495. doi:10.3390/ani12040495.

Shannon G, Druce DJ, Page BR, Eckhardt HC, Grant R, Slotow R. 2008. The utilization of large savanna trees by elephant in southern Kruger National Park. J Trop Ecol. 24(3):281–289. doi:10.1017/S0266467408004951.

Shannon G, Mackey RL, Slotow R. 2013. Diet selection and seasonal dietary switch of a large sexually dimorphic herbivore. Acta Oecologica. 46:48–55. doi:10.1016/j.actao.2012.10.013.

Shannon G, Slotow R, Durant SM, Sayialel KN, Poole J, Moss C, McComb K. 2013. Effects of social disruption in elephants persist decades after culling. Front Zool. 10(1):62. doi:10.1186/1742-9994-10-62.

Shoshani J. 1996. Skeletal and other basic anatomical features of elephants. In: The Proboscidea, evolution and palaeoecology of elephants and their relatives. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 9-20.

Shoshani JH. 1997. It’s a nose! It’s a hand! It’s an elephants’ trunk! Nat. Hist. 106(10):37-43.

Shoshani J, Kupsky WJ, Marchant GH. 2006. Elephant brain. Brain Res Bull. 70(2):124–157. doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2006.03.016.

Shoshani J, Tassy P. 2013. Family Elephantidae, elephants. In: Mammals of Africa. Volume I: introductory chapters and Afrotheria. New York (NY): Bloomsbury. (Kingdon J, Happold DCD, Butynski TM, Hoffman M, Happold M, Kalina J, editors). p. 176–178.

Shrader AM, Pimm SL, Van Aarde RJ. 2010. Elephant survival, rainfall and the confounding effects of water provision and fences. Biodivers Conserv. 19(8):2235–2245. doi:10.1007/s10531-010-9836-7.

Sikes SK. 1971. The natural history of the African elephant. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson (The World Naturalist).

de Silva S, Schmid V, Wittemyer G. 2017. Fission–fusion processes weaken dominance networks of female Asian elephants in a productive habitat. Behav Ecol. 28(1):243–252. doi:10.1093/beheco/arw153.

Sitienei AJ, Ge JW, Ngene SM, De La Paix MJ, Waweru FredK. 2011. Analysis in the concentration, determination and comparison of some mineral elements in the natural salt-licks utilized by elephants: Mt. Elgon National Park case study. Adv Mater Res. 356–360:1796–1800. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.356-360.1796.

Skarpe C, Masunga G, Aarrestad PA, Frost PGH. 2014. Soil as controller of and responder to elephant activity. In: Skarpe C, Du Toit JT, Moe SR, editors. Elephants and savanna woodland ecosystems. 1st ed. Oxford (UK): Wiley. p. 135–153.

Smit J, Pozo RA, Cusack JJ, Nowak K, Jones T. 2019. Using camera traps to study the age–sex structure and behaviour of crop-using elephants Loxodonta africana in Udzungwa Mountains National Park, Tanzania. Oryx. 53(2):368–376. doi:10.1017/S0030605317000345.

Smith F. 1890. Histology of the skin of the elephant. J Anat Physiol. 24(Pt 4):493–503.

Smith RJ, Biggs D, St. John FAV, ‘T Sas-Rolfes M, Barrington R. 2015. Elephant conservation and corruption beyond the ivory trade. Conserv Biol. 29(3):953–956. doi:10.1111/cobi.12488.

Smuts GI. 1975. Reproduction and population characteristics of elephants in the Kruger National Park. South Afr J Wildl Res. 5(1):1–10.

Soltis J. 2010. Vocal communication in African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Zoo Biol. 29(2):192–209. doi:10.1002/zoo.20251.

Soltis J. 2013. Emotional communication in African elephants (Loxodonta africana). In: Altenmüller E, Schmidt S, Zimmermann E, editors. Evolution of Emotional Communication. 1st ed. Oxford University Press, Oxford. p. 105–115. [accessed 2023 Dec 1]. https://academic.oup.com/book/6831/chapter/151013064.

Soltis J, Leighty KA, Wesolek CM, Savage A. 2009. The expression of affect in African elephant (Loxodonta africana) rumble vocalizations. J Comp Psychol. 123(2):222–225. doi:10.1037/a0015223.

Soltis J, Leong K, Savage A. 2005. African elephant vocal communication II: rumble variation reflects the individual identity and emotional state of callers. Anim Behav. 70(3):589–599. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2004.11.016.

Soppelsa J, Pouydebat E, Lefeuvre M, Mulot B, Houssin C, Cornette R. 2022. The relationship between distal trunk morphology and object grasping in the African savannah elephant (Loxodonta africana). PeerJ. 10:e13108. doi:10.7717/peerj.13108.

Spanbauer BR, Adler GH. 2015. Seed protection through dispersal by African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana africana) in northern Tanzania. Afr J Ecol. 53(4):496–501. doi:10.1111/aje.12239.

Springer MS. 2022. Afrotheria. Current Biology. 32(5):R205–R210. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2022.02.001.

Stansfield FJ, Allen WR. 2012. Luteal maintenance of pregnancy in the African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Reproduction. 143(6):845–854. doi:10.1530/REP-12-0032.

Stephan C, Bahamboula JJD, Brncic TM. 2020. Responses to a poached conspecific in wild forest elephants (Loxodonta africana cyclotis). Behaviour. 157(8–9):823–833. doi:10.1163/1568539X-bja10025.

Stevens N, Erasmus BFN, Archibald S, Bond WJ. 2016. Woody encroachment over 70 years in South African savannahs: overgrazing, global change or extinction aftershock? Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci. 371(1703):20150437. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0437.

Stiles D. 2004. The ivory trade and elephant conservation. Environ Conserv. 31(4):309–321. doi:10.1017/S0376892904001614.

Stiles D. 2009. CITES–approved ivory sales and elephant poaching. Pachyderm. 45:150–153.

Stiles D. 2011. Elephant meat and ivory trade in Central Africa. Pachyderm. 50:26–36.

Stiles D. 2022. Ivory trafficking, transnational organized criminal networks in eastern and southern Africa 2009-2020, and the emerging new threat. Pachyderm. 63:140–152.

Stoeger AS. 2021. Elephant sonic and infrasonic sound production, perception, and processing. In: Neuroendocrine Regulation of Animal Vocalization. Elsevier. p. 189–199. [accessed 2023 Nov 21]. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780128151600000232.

Stoeger AS, Baotic A. 2016. Information content and acoustic structure of male African elephant social rumbles. Sci Rep. 6(1):27585. doi:10.1038/srep27585.

Stoeger AS, Baotic A. 2017. Male African elephants discriminate and prefer vocalizations of unfamiliar females. Sci Rep. 7(1):46414. doi:10.1038/srep46414.

Stoeger AS, Charlton BD, Kratochvil H, Fitch WT. 2011. Vocal cues indicate level of arousal in infant African elephant roars. J Acoust Soc Am. 130(3):1700–1710. doi:10.1121/1.3605538.

Stoeger AS, de Silva S. 2014. African and Asian elephant vocal communication: a cross-species comparison. In: Witzany G, editor. Biocommunication of Animals. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. p. 21–39. [accessed 2023 Dec 1]. https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-94-007-7414-8_3.

Stokstad E. 2021. ‘This is amazing!’ African elephants may transport seeds farther than any other land animal. doi:10.1126/science.aal1023. [accessed 2023 Nov 21]. https://www.science.org/content/article/amazing-african-elephants-may-transport-seeds-farther-any-other-land-animal.

Stone J, Halasz P. 1989. Topography of the retina in the elephant Loxodonta africana. Brain Behav Evol. 34(2):84–95. doi:10.1159/000116494.

Suedmeyer WK. 2006. Special senses. In: Biology, medicine and surgery of elephants (Fowler ME, Mikota SK, editors). Ames (IA): Blackwell Publishing. p. 399-407.

Sukumar R. 2003. The living elephants: evolutionary ecology, behavior, and conservation. New York: Oxford University Press.

Szott ID, Pretorius Y, Koyama NF. 2019. Behavioural changes in African elephants in response to wildlife tourism. J Zool. 308(3):164–174. doi:10.1111/jzo.12661.

Tassy P, Shoshani J. 2013. Genus Loxodonta, African elephants. In: Mammals of Africa. Volume I: introductory chapters and Afrotheria. New York (NY): Bloomsbury. (Kingdon J, Happold DCD, Butynski TM, Hoffman M, Happold M, Kalina J, editors). p. 178–180.

Taylor LA, Vollrath F, Lambert B, Lunn D, Douglas‐Hamilton I, Wittemyer G. 2020. Movement reveals reproductive tactics in male elephants. J Anim Ecol. 89(1):57–67. doi:10.1111/1365-2656.13035.

Tchamba MN, Seme PM. 1993. Diet and feeding behaviour of the forest elephant in the Santchou Reserve, Cameroon. African Journal of Ecology. 31(2):165–171. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1993.tb00529.x.

Terborgh J, Davenport LC, Niangadouma R, Dimoto E, Mouandza JC, Scholtz O, Jaen MR. 2016. Megafaunal influences on tree recruitment in African equatorial forests. Ecography. 39(2):180–186. doi:10.1111/ecog.01641.

Thaker M, Gupte PR, Prins HHT, Slotow R, Vanak AT. 2019. Fine-scale tracking of ambient temperature and movement reveals shuttling behavior of elephants to water. Front Ecol Evol. 7:4. doi:10.3389/fevo.2019.00004.

Theuerkauf J, Rouys S, van Berge Henegouwen AL, Krell FT, Mazur S, Mühlenberg M. 2009. Colonization of forest elephant dung by invertebrates in the Bossematié Forest Reserve, Ivory Coast. Zoological Studies 48(3): 343-350.

Theuerkauf J, Ellenberg H, Guiro Y. 2000. Group structure of forest elephants in the Bossematié Forest Reserve, Ivory Coast. Afr J Ecol. 38(3):262–264. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2028.2000.00236.x.

Thompson ME, Schwager SJ, Payne KB. 2010. Heard but not seen: an acoustic survey of the African forest elephant population at Kakum Conservation Area, Ghana. Afr J Ecol. 48(1):224–231. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01106.x.

Thouless CR, Dublin HT, Blanc JJ, Skinner DP, Daniel TE, Taylor RD, Maisels F, Frederick HL, Bouché P. 2016. African elephant status report 2016: an update from the African Elephant Database. Gland (Switzerland): IUCN / SSC Africa Elephant Specialist Group Occasional Paper Series of the IUCN Species Survival Commission, No. 60. https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/46878.

Tiller LN, Humle T, Amin R, Deere NJ, Lago BO, Leader-Williams N, Sinoni FK, Sitati N, Walpole M, Smith RJ. 2021. Changing seasonal, temporal and spatial crop-raiding trends over 15 years in a human-elephant conflict hotspot. Biol Conserv. 254:108941. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108941.

Troup G, Doran B, Au J, King LE, Douglas-Hamilton I, Heinsohn R. 2020. Movement tortuosity and speed reveal the trade-offs of crop raiding for African elephants. Anim Behav. 168:97–108. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.08.009.

Tshipa A, Valls-Fox H, Fritz H, Collins K, Sebele L, Mundy P, Chamaillé-Jammes S. 2017. Partial migration links local surface-water management to large-scale elephant conservation in the world’s largest transfrontier conservation area. Biol Conserv. 215:46–50. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2017.09.003.

Turkalo A, Barnes R. 2013. Loxodonta cyclotis, forest elephant. In: Mammals of Africa. Volume I: introductory chapters and Afrotheria. New York (NY): Bloomsbury. (Kingdon J, Happold DCD, Butynski TM, Hoffman M, Happold M, Kalina J, editors). p. 195–200.

Turkalo A, Fay J. 1995. Studying forest elephants by direct observation: preliminary results from the Dzanga clearing, Central African Republic. Pachyderm. 20:45–54. doi:10.69649/pachyderm.v20i1.826.

Turkalo AK. 2013. Estimating forest elephant age. Afr J Ecol. 51(3):501–505. doi:10.1111/aje.12087.

Turkalo AK, Wrege PH, Wittemyer G. 2013. Long-term monitoring of Dzanga Bai forest elephants: forest clearing use patterns. Deschner T, editor. PLOS ONE. 8(12):e85154. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0085154.

Turkalo AK, Wrege PH, Wittemyer G. 2017. Slow intrinsic growth rate in forest elephants indicates recovery from poaching will require decades. J Appl Ecol. 54(1):153–159. doi:10.1111/1365-2664.12764.

Turkalo AK, Wrege PH, Wittemyer G. 2018. Demography of a forest elephant population. Roca AL, editor. PLOS ONE. 13(2):e0192777. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0192777.

UN. 2013. Report of the Secretary-General on the activities of the United Nations Regional Office for Central Africa and on the Lord’s Resistance Army-affiliated areas. New York: United Nations Security Council, 19 pp. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/760924?v=pdf.

Underwood FM, Burn RW, Milliken T. 2013. Dissecting the illegal ivory trade: an analysis of ivory seizures data. Montoya ARH, editor. PLOS ONE. 8(10):e76539. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076539.

UNEP. 2024. Species+: Loxodonta africana [online database]. Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP [compiled by UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK]. [accessed 2024 Nov 01]. https://www.speciesplus.net/species#/taxon_concepts/4521/legal.

UNODC. 2024. World wildlife crime report 2024: trafficking in protected species. Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/wildlife.html.

Vaccaro D, Schulte BA. 2024. Mammalian and avian community response to African elephant (Loxodonta africana) habitat disturbance in south-eastern Kenya. Afr Zool. 59(3–4):123–135. doi:10.1080/15627020.2024.2379378.

Valeix M, Fritz H, Canévet V, Le Bel S, Madzikanda H. 2009. Do elephants prevent other African herbivores from using waterholes in the dry season? Biodivers Conserv. 18(3):569–576. doi:10.1007/s10531-008-9523-0.

Valeix M, Fritz H, Sabatier R, Murindagomo F, Cumming D, Duncan P. 2011. Elephant-induced structural changes in the vegetation and habitat selection by large herbivores in an African savanna. Biol Conserv. 144(2):902–912. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2010.10.029.

Van Aarde RJ, Ferreira SM. 2009. Elephant populations and CITES trade resolutions. Environ Conserv. 36(01):8. doi:10.1017/S0376892909005438.

Van Uhm D, South N, Wyatt T. 2021. Connections between trades and trafficking in wildlife and drugs. Trends Organ Crime. 24(4):425–446. doi:10.1007/s12117-021-09416-z.

Van Uhm DP, Moreto WD. 2017 Jun 13. Corruption within the illegal wildlife trade: a symbiotic and antithetical enterprise. Br J Criminol. doi:10.1093/bjc/azx032. [accessed 2025 Jan 7]. https://academic.oup.com/bjc/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/bjc/azx032.

Vanleeuwe H, Gautier‐Hion A. 1998. Forest elephant paths and movements at the Odzala National Park, Congo: the role of clearings and Marantaceae forests. Afr J Ecol. 36(2):174–182. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.00123.x.

Vanschoenwinkel B, Waterkeyn A, Nhiwatiwa T, Pinceel T, Spooren E, Geerts A, Clegg B, Brendonck L. 2011. Passive external transport of freshwater invertebrates by elephant and other mud-wallowing mammals in an African savannah habitat: Invertebrate dispersal by mud-wallowing mammals. Freshw Biol. 56(8):1606–1619. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2427.2011.02600.x.

Vidya TNC, Sukumar R. 2005. Social and reproductive behaviour in elephants. Curr Sci. 89(7):1200–1207.

Vigne L, Martin E. 2011. Consumption of elephant and mammoth ivory increases in southern China. Pachyderm. 49:79–89.

Vogel SM, Blumenthal SA, De Boer WF, Masake M, Newton I, Songhurst AC, McCulloch G, Stronza A, Henley MD, Coulson T. 2020. Timing of dietary switching by savannah elephants in relation to crop consumption. Biol Conserv. 249:108703. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108703.

Vogel SM, Henley MD, Rode SC, Van De Vyver D, Meares KF, Simmons G, De Boer WF. 2014. Elephant (Loxodonta africana) impact on trees used by nesting vultures and raptors in South Africa. Afr J Ecol. 52(4):458–465. doi:10.1111/aje.12140.

Von Dürckheim KEM, Hoffman LC, Leslie A, Hensman MC, Hensman S, Schultz K, Lee S. 2018. African elephants (Loxodonta africana) display remarkable olfactory acuity in human scent matching to sample performance. Appl Anim Behav Sci. 200:123–129. doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2017.12.004.

Von Dürckheim KEM, Hoffman LC, Poblete-Echeverría C, Bishop JM, Goodwin TE, Schulte BA, Leslie A. 2022. A pachyderm perfume: odour encodes identity and group membership in African elephants. Sci Rep. 12(1):16768. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-20920-2.

Von Gerhardt K, Van Niekerk A, Kidd M, Samways M, Hanks J. 2014. The role of elephant Loxodonta africana pathways as a spatial variable in crop-raiding location. Oryx. 48(3):436–444. doi:10.1017/S003060531200138X.

Wall J, Wittemyer G, Klinkenberg B, LeMay V, Blake S, Strindberg S, Henley M, Vollrath F, Maisels F, Ferwerda J, et al. 2021. Human footprint and protected areas shape elephant range across Africa. Curr Biol. 31(11):2437-2445.e4. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2021.03.042.

Wasser S, Poole J, Lee P, Lindsay K, Dobson A, Hart J, Douglas-Hamilton I, Wittemyer G, Granli P, Morgan B, et al. 2010. Elephants, ivory, and trade. Science. 327(5971):1331–1332. doi:10.1126/science.1187811.

Wasser SK, Brown L, Mailand C, Mondol S, Clark W, Laurie C, Weir BS. 2015. Genetic assignment of large seizures of elephant ivory reveals Africa’s major poaching hotspots. Science. 349(6243):84–87. doi:10.1126/science.aaa2457.

Wasser SK, Joseph Clark W, Drori O, Stephen Kisamo E, Mailand C, Mutayoba B, Stephens M. 2008. Combating the illegal trade in African elephant ivory with DNA forensics. Conserv Biol. 22(4):1065–1071. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.01012.x.

Wato YA, Heitkönig IMA, Van Wieren SE, Wahungu G, Prins HHT, Van Langevelde F. 2016. Prolonged drought results in starvation of African elephant (Loxodonta africana). Biol Conserv. 203:89–96. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2016.09.007.

Wato YA, Prins HHT, Heitkönig IMA, Wahungu GM, Ngene SM, Njumbi S, Van Langevelde F. 2018. Movement patterns of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in a semi-arid savanna suggest that they have information on the location of dispersed water sources. Front Ecol Evol. 6:167. doi:10.3389/fevo.2018.00167.

Weissengruber GE, Forstenpointner G. 2004. Musculature of the crus and pes of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana): insight into semiplantigrade limb architecture. Anat Embryol (Berl). 208(6). doi:10.1007/s00429-004-0406-1. [accessed 2024 Feb 27]. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00429-004-0406-1.

West JB. 2001. Snorkel breathing in the elephant explains the unique anatomy of its pleura. Respir Physiol. 126(1):1–8. doi:10.1016/S0034-5687(01)00203-1.

Western D, Mose VN. 2023. Cascading effects of elephant–human interactions and the role of space and mobility in sustaining biodiversity. Ecosphere. 14(5):e4512. doi:10.1002/ecs2.4512.

White AM, Goodman PS. 2010. Differences in woody vegetation are unrelated to use by African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Mkhuze Game Reserve, South Africa. Afr J Ecol. 48(1):215–223. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01105.x.

White LJT, Tutin CEG, Fernandez M. 1993. Group composition and diet of forest elephants, Loxodonta africana cyclotis Matschie 1900, in the Lopé Reserve, Gabon. Afr J Ecol. 31(3):181–199. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1993.tb00532.x.

Wierucka K, Henley MD, Mumby HS. 2021. Acoustic cues to individuality in wild male adult African savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana). PeerJ. 9:e10736. doi:10.7717/peerj.10736.

Wilkinson DM, Midgley JJ, Cunningham AB. 2022. Constraints, crashes and conservation: were historical African savanna elephants Loxodonta africana densities relatively high or lower than those seen in protected areas today? Plant Ecol Divers. 15(1–2):1–11. doi:10.1080/17550874.2022.2078244.

Wisniewska M, Freeman EW, Schulte BA. 2015. Behavioural patterns among female African savannah elephants: the role of age, lactational status, and sex of the nursing calf. Behaviour. 152(12–13):1719–1744. doi:10.1163/1568539X-00003301.

Wittemyer G. 2011a. African savanna elephant Loxodonta africana. In: Wilson DE, Mittermeier RA, editors. Handbook of the mammals of the world: hoofed mammals (volume 2). Barcelona (Spain): Lynx Edicions. p. 77.

Wittemyer G. 2011b. African forest elephant Loxodonta cyclotis. In: Wilson DE, Mittermeier RA, editors. Handbook of the mammals of the world: hoofed mammals (volume 2). Barcelona (Spain): Lynx Edicions. p. 77–78.

Wittemyer G. 2011c. Family Elephantidae (elephants). In: Wilson DE, Mittermeier RA, editors. Handbook of the mammals of the world: hoofed mammals (volume 2). Barcelona (Spain): Lynx Edicions. p. 50–79.

Wittemyer G, Daballen D, Douglas-Hamilton I. 2011. Rising ivory prices threaten elephants. Nature. 476(7360):282–283. doi:10.1038/476282c.

Wittemyer G, Daballen D, Douglas-Hamilton I. 2013. Comparative demography of an at-risk African elephant population. Hayward M, editor. PLOS ONE. 8(1):e53726. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0053726.

Wittemyer G, Daballen D, Douglas‐Hamilton I. 2021. Differential influence of human impacts on age‐specific demography underpins trends in an African elephant population. Ecosphere. 12(8):e03720. doi:10.1002/ecs2.3720.

Wittemyer G, Getz WM. 2007. Hierarchical dominance structure and social organization in African elephants, Loxodonta africana. Anim Behav. 73(4):671–681. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.10.008.

Wittemyer G, Getz WM, Vollrath F, Douglas-Hamilton I. 2007. Social dominance, seasonal movements, and spatial segregation in African elephants: a contribution to conservation behavior. Behav Ecol Sociobiol. 61(12):1919–1931. doi:10.1007/s00265-007-0432-0.

Wittemyer G, Keating LM, Vollrath F, Douglas‐Hamilton I. 2017. Graph theory illustrates spatial and temporal features that structure elephant rest locations and reflect risk perception. Ecography. 40(5):598–605. doi:10.1111/ecog.02379.

Wittemyer G, Northrup JM, Blanc J, Douglas-Hamilton I, Omondi P, Burnham KP. 2014. Illegal killing for ivory drives global decline in African elephants. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 111(36):13117–13121. doi:10.1073/pnas.1403984111.

Wong RWY. 2019. The illegal distribution of ivory in Hong Kong. In: The Illegal Wildlife Trade in China. Cham: Springer International Publishing. p. 93–118. [accessed 2024 Nov 15]. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-13666-6_5.

Wood JD, Mccowan B, Langbauer WR, Viljoen JJ, Hart LA. 2005. Classification of African elephant Loxodonta africana rumbles using acoustic parameters and cluster analysis. Bioacoustics. 15(2):143–161. doi:10.1080/09524622.2005.9753544.

Wood M, Chamaillé-Jammes S, Hammerbacher A, Shrader AM. 2022. African elephants can detect water from natural and artificial sources via olfactory cues. Anim Cogn. 25(1):53–61. doi:10.1007/s10071-021-01531-2.

Woolley L, Millspaugh JJ, Woods RJ, Van Rensburg SJ, Page BR, Slotow R. 2009. Intraspecific strategic responses of African elephants to temporal variation in forage quality. J Wildl Manag. 73(6):827–835. doi:10.2193/2008-412.

Wrege PH, Rowland ED, Bout N, Doukaga M. 2012. Opening a larger window onto forest elephant ecology. Afr J Ecol. 50(2):176–183. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2011.01310.x.

Wrege PH, Rowland ED, Keen S, Shiu Y. 2017. Acoustic monitoring for conservation in tropical forests: examples from forest elephants. Matthiopoulos J, editor. Methods Ecol Evol. 8(10):1292–1301. doi:10.1111/2041-210X.12730.

Wrege PH, Rowland ED, Thompson BG, Batruch N. 2010. Use of acoustic tools to reveal otherwise cryptic responses of forest elephants to oil exploration. Conserv Biol. 24(6):1578–1585. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01559.x.

Wright PG. 1984. Why do elephants flap their ears? South Afr J Zool. 19(4):266–269. doi:10.1080/02541858.1984.11447891.

Wright PG, Luck CP. 1984. Do elephants need to sweat? South Afr J Zool. 19(4):270–274. doi:10.1080/02541858.1984.11447892.

Wyatt JR, Eltringham SK. 1974. The daily activity of the elephant in the Rwenzori National Park, Uganda. African Journal of Ecology. 12(4):273–289. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1974.tb01037.x.

Young K. D., Ferreira SM, Van Aarde RJ. 2009. Elephant spatial use in wet and dry savannas of southern Africa. J Zool. 278(3):189–205. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2009.00568.x.

Young Kim D., Ferreira SM, Van Aarde RJ. 2009. The influence of increasing population size and vegetation productivity on elephant distribution in the Kruger National Park. Austral Ecol. 34(3):329–342. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.2009.01934.x.

Young KD, Van Aarde RJ. 2010. Density as an explanatory variable of movements and calf survival in savanna elephants across southern Africa. J Anim Ecol. 79(3):662–673. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2010.01667.x.

Yumoto T, Maruhashi T, Yamagiwa J, Mwanza N. 1995. Seed-dispersal by elephants in a tropical rain forest in Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Zaire. Biotropica. 27(4):526. doi:10.2307/2388968.

Zacarias D, Loyola R. 2018. Distribution modelling and multi-scale landscape connectivity highlight important areas for the conservation of savannah elephants. Biol Conserv. 224:1–8. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2018.05.014.

Zhou X, Wang Q, Zhang W, Jin Y, Wang Z, Chai Z, Zhou Z, Cui X, MacMillan DC. 2018. Elephant poaching and the ivory trade: The impact of demand reduction and enforcement efforts by China from 2005 – 2017. Glob Ecol Conserv. 16:e00486. doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2018.e00486.