African Elephants (Loxodonta africana and L. cyclotis) Fact Sheet: Physical Characteristics

Body measurements

Sources:

^aWittemyer (2011a), Wittemyer (2011b), Wittemyer (2011c)

^bGrubb et al. (2000), Tassy and Shoshani (2013)

^cGrubb et al. (2000), Tassy and Shoshani (2013), Poole et al. (2013), Turkalo (2013), and Turkalo and Barnes (2013). Turkalo and Barnes (2013) noted that maximum shoulder height varies among forest elephant populations, some reaching up to 2.8 m, another only to 2.1 m.

^dWittemyer (2011a), Wittemyer (2011b)

^eTurkalo and Barnes (2013) state the average head–body length for forest elephants as approximately 244 cm for males and 198 cm for females; does not appear to include trunk length

^fFemales in their 30s at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park are usually about 7.5 ft (2.3 m) tall (possibly reflects a subpopulation difference in this trait, eg, Eswatini vs. Amboseli) (Evan Miracle, personal communication, 2025)

African savanna elephants and African forest elephants are generally similar in appearance (Turkalo and Barnes 2013).

Characteristics of all elephants

• Flexible, muscular trunk
• Large ears
• Columnar legs
• Thick skin
  • Sometimes called “pachyderms”
• Sparse patches of hair

Body

• Largest living land mammals (Sikes 1971)

• Savanna elephants
  • Substantial variation in body size across range (Poole et al. 2013)
  • Large males can reach over 3.5 m (11 ft) at the shoulder (Poole et al. 2013)
    • Only giraffes are taller (Sikes 1971)
• Forest elephants
  • Generally much smaller than savanna elephants (Tassy and Shoshani 2013; Turkalo and Barnes 2013; Nowak 2018)
  • Back straighter
    • More concave in savanna elephants

Trunk

• Overview
  • Elephants are the only living land mammal with a long boneless appendage (Pretorius et al. 2016)
  • Can bend, suck, twist, grasp, pinch (with trunk tip), and stiffen (Dagenais et al. 2021; Costes et al. 2024)
  • Can pick up objects of many different sizes and shapes (eg, Dagenais et al. 2021; Soppelsa et al. 2022)
  • Prehensile and capable of remarkably complex movements (Dagenais et al. 2021)
    • Lengthen/shorten specific portions of trunk, one by one in sequence (while reaching for something)
    • Can form stiff angles that function like joints
    • See videos by Dagenais et al. (2021)
• Anatomy/structure
  • Fusion of nose and upper lip (Shoshani 1997; Wittemyer 2011c)
  • 2 nostrils (Kingdon 1979)
    • Elephants have the widest nostrils of any mammal (Schulz et al. 2021)
  • 2 “fingers” at tip (Shoshani 1997)
    • Asian elephant has 1 “finger” (Shoshani 1997)
  • Many short hairs and sensitive nerves (Wittemyer 2011c; Poole et al. 2013 citing Rasmussen and Munger 1996)
    • Allow for precise grasping
    • Detect vibrations
    • Sense subtle differences in temperature
  • Muscles
    • Dense muscle fiber bundles run in many directions; surrounded by tough but sensitive skin (Kier and Smith 1985; Shoshani 1997; Dagenais et al. 2021)
    • Elephants have about 6 muscle major groups in their trunk—running along its length, outward like spokes on a bicycle wheel, and at other angles—which allow the trunk to move flexibly in many directions (Shoshani 1997; Dagenais et al. 2021)
      • Lift trunk, lower trunk
      • Twist trunk
      • Expand or contract nostrils
    • Have fine control over portions of trunk used (Dagenais et al. 2021)
  • Wrinkles
    • See Skin: Texture
• Functions (Shoshani 1992)
  • Breathing
    • 70% of air inhaled through the trunk (the rest through the mouth)
  • Smelling
  • Getting food and water
    • Suction feeding being one of the most unique uses for their trunk (Shultz et al 2021)
    • Suction feeding/drinking
    • Schulz et al. (2021) found that elephants can greatly expand their trunk to carry more water
  • Lifting objects
  • Spraying dust, grass, and water on body
  • Communication through touch and by producing sounds/vocalizations

Teeth

• Structure
  • Tusks
    • Modified upper incisors (Poole et al. 2013)
    • See Tusks
  • Molars
    • Grind and break down vegetation (Poole et al. 2013)
    • A pair of teeth on each side of the jaw slide forward and backward against each other (Eltringham 1991; Poole et al. 2013)
    • Can weigh over 5 kg (11 lb) (Fowler 1993)
    • In forest elephant, more adapted for eating softer vegetation and fruits than tough grasses (Nowak 2018)
• Growth and replacement (Laws 1966; Eltringham 1991; Lee et al. 2012; Poole et al. 2013)
  • Molars replaced as an individual ages
    • Worn-out, older teeth pushed forward in jaw
    • Teeth erupt in conveyor-belt fashion, one by one, with the leading edge of the older tooth breaking off and falling out
  • May produce 6 sets during a lifetime
    • Only 1 or 2 functional molars in each jaw half at a time
    • Last set of molars typically lost between 60 and 70 years of age
      • Uncommon but possible for individuals to reach this advanced age
      • Cannot feed properly once last teeth fall out and die of malnutrition

Ears

• Shape
  • Often likened to the continent of Africa (eg, Suedmeyer 2006; Wittemyer 2011c)
  • Forest elephant
    • Usually rounder and smaller than savanna elephant (Sikes 1971; Turkalo and Barnes 2013; Nowak 2018), though shape and size can vary and be similar to savannah elephant (Turkalo and Barnes 2013)
• Size
  • Very large (Moss 2000; Wittemyer 2011c)
    • Savanna elephant
      • Can be 150 to 200 cm (59 to 79 in) from top to bottom (Nowak 2018) and up to 120 cm (47 in) across (Poole et al. 2013)
    • Forest elephant
      • About 90 cm (35 in), or half the height of savanna elephant’s ear (Nowak 2018)
    • Twice as large of Asian elephant’s ears (Dunkin et al. 2013)
• Anatomy/structure
  • Outer ear
    • Supported by lattice-like cartilage structures, as well as muscles at base (for raising/listening and flapping) (Suedmeyer 2006; Garstang et al. 2015)
  • Inner ear
    • Middle ear structures (incus, stapes, etc.) also large (Garstang et al. 2015; Jacobson and Shoshani 2020)
    • Ear canal and inner ear adapted for low-frequency hearing (Garstang 2004; Soltis 2010; Poole et al. 2013)
  • Distance between ears is large (Suedmeyer 2006)
    • Sound waves may reach one ear much sooner than the other
    • Allows elephants to easily determine the direction of sounds
• Functions
  • Hearing
  • Communication, including social displays
  • Thermoregulation (to cool body temperature) (eg, Wittemyer 2011c; Domínguez-Oliva et al. 2022)
    • Also see Thermoregulation  

Tusks

• Shape
  • Savanna elephant
    • Curve out and forward (Grubb et al. 2000; Tassy and Shoshani 2013)
  • Forest elephant (Kingdon 1979; Grubb et al. 2000; Tassy and Shoshani 2013; Turkalo and Barnes 2013)
    • Straighter and point down
    • Can be narrower than tusks of savanna elephant (but vary in thickness and shape)
• Size
  • Varies greatly across each species’ range (Wittemyer 2011a)
  • Tusks of savanna elephants larger than forest elephants (Grubb et al. 2000; Turkalo and Barnes 2013)
  • Tusks of females usually smaller than those of males (eg, Grubb et al. 2000)
    • Poachers usually target largest tusked males in a population first, followed by largest tusked females (eg, Mondol et al. 2014)
  • Longer, more symmetrical tusks often grow in elephants of mild temperament (individuals less prone to breaking tusks from fighting and tree-pushing) (Kingdon 1979, Nowak 2018)
• Density
  • Forest elephant tusks are harder (Turkalo and Barnes 2013)
    • Sturdier carving material preferred by ivory carvers in some countries
• Anatomy/structure
  • Each tusk derived from an upper incisor tooth (Wittemyer 2011c; Nowak 2018)
  • Inside tusk, crisscross lines form small diamond shaped areas (in cross section) (Schreger lines) (Shoshani 1992)
    • Unique to elephant tusks (and mammoth tusks)
    • Can help customs officials in evaluating smuggled ivory
• Development
  • Tusks present in males and females (unlike Asian elephant), though some females tuskless (Jachmann et al. 1995; Poole et al. 2013 citing Poole 1989 and Whitehouse 2002; Jones et al. 2018; Campbell-Staton et al. 2021; Poole and Granli 2022)
  • Grow continuously over a lifetime in males (Poole et al. 2013; Nowak 2018)
    • Tusk growth in females slows after age 30 [savannah elephant]
      • In Kruger National Park, stops by age 40
    • Broken tusks can regrow quickly (Poole et al. 2013; Nowak 2018)
• Functions (Shoshani and Eisenberg 1982)
  • Gather food
    • Strip tree bark
    • Knock over trees (savannah elephants)
  • Dig for water or minerals
    • Loosen soil with tusks, then dig with trunk (up to several meters deep) (Nowak 2018)
  • Defense and fighting
  • Possibly for communication or status signaling
    • Mark trees
    • Assert dominance
    • Displaying to potential mates

Legs and feet

• Limbs
  • Adapted to support weight and movement of a huge body (Kingdon 1979; Weissengruber and Forstenpointner 2004; Nagel et al. 2018; Bader et al. 2023)
  • Longer front legs allow for longer strides, helping to conserve energy while walking (Alexander et al. 1979; Kingdon 1979)
    • Also have a unique walking gait; see Locomotion
  • Robust humerus bones accommodate higher strain on forelimbs (Kingdon 1979; Bader et al. 2023)
    • Support front body and heavy head, trunk, and tusks
    • 60% of body weight is supported by the front legs (Genin et al. 2010; Ren et al. 2010)
  • Other leg bones allow for considerable rotation and flexibility (eg, while turning, climbing slopes, etc.) (Kingdon 1979)
• Feet
  • Bone arrangement
    • Elephants walk “on tiptoes,” with bone digits angled toward ground (Hutchinson et al. 2011; Poole et al. 2013)
  • Foot pads
    • Large, wedge-shaped “fat pads” cushion bottoms of feet (Weissengruber et al. 2006; Panagiotopoulou et al. 2016)
      • Absorb shock from impact with ground
      • Likely aid sensory signals (eg, vibrations, pressure)
• Toenails
  • Savanna elephant
    • 4 to 5 nails on forefeet, 3 to 5 on hind feet (Tassy and Shoshani 2013; Nowak 2018)
      • Parker and Graham (2017) found that 5 nails on forefeet and 4 nails on hind feet was most common in 3 populations from East Africa
  • Forest elephant
    • 5 nails on forefoot, 4 to 5 on hind foot (Tassy and Shoshani 2013; Nowak 2018)

Tail

• Savanna elephant
  • May be up to 1.0 to 1.5 m (3 to 5 ft) long in adults (Poole et al. 2013)
  • Tail hairs very long compared to hairs on other body areas

Skin

• Coloration
  • Savanna elephants
    • Typically, a pale-to-dark gray or brownish (Poole et al. 2013)
  • Forest elephants
    • Typically, gray (Turkalo and Barnes 2013) or a dark gray (Nowak 2018)
    • Newborns may have pinkish underside areas (Turkalo 2013)
• Wrinkles
  • Help skin retain moisture (Lillywhite and Stein 1987; Domínguez-Oliva et al. 2022)
    • Important in regulating body temperature
  • Protect trunk surface, and allow elephants to freely move trunk in all directions (Schulz et al. 2022)
• Other characteristics
  • No sweat glands (Smith 1890; Wright and Luck 1984; Lillywhite and Stein 1987), except possibly in feet (Lamps et al. 2001)

Also see Communication.

Smell

• Excellent sense of smell
  • Have a very large number of olfactory receptor genes (Niimura et al. 2014)
    • Perhaps the most of any mammal
• Functions
  • To find food (Plotnik et al. 2014) and water (Wood et al. 2022)
  • To learn about their companions, mates, and gain other social information; see Chemical communication
• Can tell odors with very subtle differences apart
  • Can distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar elephants (Poole et al. 2013 citing Bates et al. 2007)
  • Can distinguish between individual humans and groups of humans (Von Dürckheim et al. 2018; Kränzlin et al. 2025)
  • May raise trunk tip into the air, while also listening, to investigate a new stimulus from afar (often called “periscope” behavior) (Evan Miracle, personal communication, 2025)
• Can remember odors for a long time (eg, Hoerner et al. 2023)

Hearing

• Well developed (Shoshani and Eisenberg 1982; Turkalo and Barnes 2013; Nowak 2018)
  • Important when elephants cannot smell or see potential danger (Jacobson and Shoshani 2020)
• Exceptional low-frequency hearing ability (Poole et al. 1988; Langbauer et al. 1991; Garstang 2004, 2010)
  • Hear and change behavior based on infrasonic noise (e.g., ocean waves, thunder) (Garstang 2004)
  • Can communicate with other elephants across long distances, as well as individuals nearby—see Communication
• Excellent ability to detect and remember subtle differences in human voices (McComb et al. 2014)
  • May use to identify threats (i.e., humans that might hunt them)

Touch

• Highly tactile animals (Langbauer 2000; Purkart et al. 2022)
  • Explore environment through touch
  • Communicate with other elephants through touch (e.g., show affection or aggression, greet each other, reassure, use during play, etc.)
• Face and trunk have an immense number of nerve endings (Kaufmann et al. 2022; Purkart et al. 2022)
• Trunk tip is highly sensitive (Shoshani 1997)
  • Has several specialized sensory structures (Kaufmann et al. 2022), including many sensitive whiskers (Deiringer et al. 2023)
• May sense and respond to seismic vibrations, and be able to send signals to one another through ground (O’Connell-Rodwell et al. 2001; Günther et al. 2004; O’Connell-Rodwell 2007; O’Connell-Rodwell et al. 2019)
  • May detect vibrations through their feet, bones, and inner ear structures, whereas hear sound with their large ears and inner ear structures (Jacobson and Shoshani 2020)

Vision

• Considered limited and not as important as other senses (Vidya and Sukumar 2005; Jacobson and Shoshani 2020)
• Sensitive to movement (Vidya and Sukumar 2005)
• May have better vision in front of head, for using their trunk effectively (Jacobson and Shoshani 2020)
  • Poorer vision to sides of their body
• Best vision thought to be within 5 m (15 ft) of head, but probably able to view landscapes/horizons (Stone and Halasz 1989; Pettigrew et al. 2010)
• Appear to have some color vision (Jacobson and Shoshani 2020)
  • Dichromatic; comparable to that of color-blind humans
  • May be useful in lower light conditions and in dense forests (less effective in bright light)
• Do well in discrimination-type tasks (telling things or humans apart) (Jacobson and Shoshani 2020)

Staying cool

• Physiological adaptations
  • Large ear surface area (eg, Dunkin et al. 2013)
  • Thin skin on back of ears (Suedmeyer 2006; Poole et al. 2013)
    • Networks of blood vessels lie close to skin surface, allowing heat to leave body (Suedmeyer 2006)
      • Happens in combination with ear flapping (Smith 1890; Wright and Luck 1984; Dunkin et al. 2013)
  • Wrinkles improve skin’s ability to retain moisture (Lillywhite and Stein 1987; Domínguez-Oliva et al. 2022)
  • Lack sweat glands (Smith 1890; Wright and Luck 1984; Lillywhite and Stein 1987)
    • Possibly present in feet (Lamps et al. 2001)
• Behavioral adaptations
  • Regulate body temperature with various behaviors:
    • Seek shade
    • Rest
    • Shift activity to nighttime hours
    • Get skin wet (or cover skin)
  • Frequently bathe with water, dirt, grasses, and/or mud (Wright and Luck 1984; Dunkin et al. 2013; Mole et al. 2016; Domínguez-Oliva et al. 2022)
    • Water and mud adhere to wrinkly skin, which boosts evaporative cooling (ie, moisture pulls heat away from body)
  • Flap ears, which dissipates a lot of body heat (Buss and Estes 1971; Wright 1984; Phillips and Heath 1992; Dunkin et al. 2013; Koffi et al. 2014; Domínguez-Oliva et al. 2022)
    • Also see Ears

Skeleton

• Skull
  • Sinuses with extensive honeycomb-like structure (Kingdon 1979; Poole et al. 2013; Turkalo and Barnes 2013 citing Badoux 1961)
    • Air spaces reduce skull’s weight, improving head movement
    • Support muscle attachment and tusk position
    • Protect brain from motion shocks

Brain

• Very large brain (Shoshani et al. 2006; Hart et al. 2008; Poole et al. 2013)
  • Largest of all land mammals (by volume)
  • Weighs about 5 kg (11 lb), on average [savannah elephant]
  • Savannah elephant
    • Brain is about 3 times larger than a human’s and contains 3 times as many brain cells (neurons) (Herculano-Houzel et al. 2014)
• Complex structure
  • Large lobe areas associated with learning and heightened sense of smell (Shoshani and Eisenberg 1982; Shoshani et al. 2006)
  • Enlarged brain areas related to facial nerves (for using trunk for touch and smell) (Kaufmann et al. 2022)
  • Folding suggests strong abilities for longer-term processing and integrating vast amounts of information (eg, Hart et al. 2008; Poole et al. 2013; Herculano-Houzel et al. 2014; Hope et al. 2024)
  • A specialized type of nerve cell may contribute to social awareness and possibly allows them to understand the mental states of others (Hakeem et al. 2006; Poole et al. 2013)
  • Most comparable to brains of great apes, humans, and whales, dolphins, and porpoises (eg, Shoshani and Eisenberg 1982; Shoshani et al. 2006)
• Cognitive abilities
  • Examples (see references in reviews by Poole et al. 2013 and Hope et al. 2024)
    • Social learning and basic forms of teaching
    • Recognition of scents and voices
    • Empathy (and altruism)
    • Using simple tools
    • Vocal imitation
  • Exceptional memories—in both space and time, and also social relationships (McComb et al. 2001; Hart et al. 2008; Hoerner et al. 2023; Hope et al. 2024 Oct 22)
    • Heightened memory for places (for navigating large ranges), events, and recognizing other individuals, especially relatives (McComb et al. 2001; Poole et al. 2013; Presotto et al. 2019)
  • Thought to be self-aware (Poole et al. 2013; Dale and Plotnik 2017)
    • Better studied in Asian elephants (see works by Plotnik and colleagues)  

Glands

• Temporal glands
  • Pair of scent glands located between eyes and ears
    • Secretes pheromones
  • Adult males
    • Dark, thick liquid secreted, particularly during musth (Poole and Moss 1981; Poole 1987)
  • Females and some young males
    • Savanna elephant
      • Dark, watery liquid secreted when stressed, afraid, or excited by social interactions (eg, Sikes 1971; Buss et al. 1976; Poole et al. 2013 citing Poole and Granli 2003, and J. Poole, pers. obs.; also see dissertations by J. Poole (1982) and I. Douglas-Hamilton (1972))
    • Forest elephant
      • Secretions rarely observed, but possibly induced by stress (Turkalo and Barnes 2013)
• Mammary glands
  • Pair located between forelegs of adult females (Eltringham 1991)

Lungs

• Unusual anatomy, even among mammals (Eltringham 1991; Brown et al. 1997; Isaza 2006)
  • No pleural cavity
  • Breathing caused by muscle activity, not negative pressure
• Lungs partially attached to ribs, diaphragm, and chest wall by stretchy connective tissue (a network of collagen fibers), which fill the pleural space (Kingdon 1979 citing Short 1964; Eltringham 1991; Brown et al. 1997; Isaza 2006)
  • Contributes to elephant’s ability to produce strong suction through their trunk/nostrils
  • Combined with lung’s internal support structures, possibly helps prevent the lungs from collapsing or overexpanding (eg, while suctioning water) (see Isaza 2006)

Heart

• Shape
  • Double apex at base of heart (two pointed lobes instead of one, which most mammals have) (Shoshani 1996; Nowak 2018)
    • Makes an elephant’s heart more circular-looking
    • Manatees and dugongs also have double-apex hearts
• Weight
  • 12 to 21 kg (27 to 46 lb) (Eltringham 1991)

An elephant's trunk is incredibly flexible and strong, thanks to their wrinkly skin and groups of muscles that run in various directions.

Trunks can do so many things—breathing, smelling, drinking and eating, picking up objects of all sizes, spraying dirt on their skin, feeling vibrations, snorkeling underwater, and communicating with other elephants through touch and visual displays.

Image credit: © San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance. All rights reserved.