African Elephants (Loxodonta africana and L. cyclotis) Fact Sheet: Physical Characteristics

African savanna elephants and African forest elephants are generally similar in appearance (Turkalo and Barnes 2013).

Characteristics of all elephants

• Flexible, muscular trunk
• Large ears
• Columnar legs
• Thick skin
  • Sometimes called “pachyderms”
• Sparse patches of hair

Body

• Largest living land mammals (Sikes 1971)

• • Savanna elephants
    • Substantial variation in body size across range (Poole et al. 2013)
    • Large males can reach over 3.5 m (11 ft) at the shoulder (Poole et al. 2013)
      • Only giraffes are taller (Sikes 1971)
  • Forest elephants
    • Generally much smaller than savanna elephants (Tassy and Shoshani 2013; Turkalo and Barnes 2013; Nowak 2018)
    • Back straighter
      • More concave in savanna elephants

Trunk

• Overview
  • Elephants are the only living land mammal with a long boneless appendage (Pretorius et al. 2016)
  • Can bend, suck, twist, grasp, pinch (with trunk tip), and stiffen (Dagenais et al. 2021; Costes et al. 2024)
  • Can pick up objects of many different sizes and shapes (eg, Dagenais et al. 2021; Soppelsa et al. 2022)
  • Prehensile and capable of remarkably complex movements (Dagenais et al. 2021)
    • Lengthen/shorten specific portions of trunk, one by one in sequence (while reaching for something)
    • Can form stiff angles that function like joints
    • See videos by Dagenais et al. (2021)
• Anatomy/structure
  • Fusion of nose and upper lip (Shoshani 1997; Wittemyer 2011c)
  • 2 nostrils (Kingdon 1979)
    • Elephants have the widest nostrils of any mammal (Schulz et al. 2021)
  • 2 “fingers” at tip (Shoshani 1997)
    • Asian elephant has 1 “finger” (Shoshani 1997)
  • Many short hairs and sensitive nerves (Wittemyer 2011c; Poole et al. 2013 citing Rasmussen and Munger 1996)
    • Allow for precise grasping
    • Detect vibrations
    • Sense subtle differences in temperature
  • Muscles
    • Dense muscle fiber bundles run in many directions; surrounded by tough but sensitive skin (Kier and Smith 1985; Shoshani 1997; Dagenais et al. 2021)
    • Elephants have about 6 muscle major groups in their trunk—running along its length, outward like spokes on a bicycle wheel, and at other angles—which allow the trunk to move flexibly in many directions (Shoshani 1997; Dagenais et al. 2021)
      • Lift trunk, lower trunk
      • Twist trunk
      • Expand or contract nostrils
    • Have fine control over portions of trunk used (Dagenais et al. 2021)
  • Wrinkles
    • See Skin: Texture
• Functions (Shoshani 1992)
  • Breathing
    • 70% of air inhaled through the trunk (the rest through the mouth)
  • Smelling
  • Getting food and water
    • Suction feeding being one of the most unique uses for their trunk (Shultz et al 2021)
    • Suction feeding/drinking
    • Schulz et al. (2021) found that elephants can greatly expand their trunk to carry more water
  • Lifting objects
  • Spraying dust, grass, and water on body
  • Communication through touch and by producing sounds/vocalizations

Teeth

• Structure
  • Tusks
    • Modified upper incisors (Poole et al. 2013)
    • See Tusks, below
  • Molars
    • Grind and break down vegetation (Poole et al. 2013)
    • A pair of teeth on each side of the jaw slide forward and backward against each other (Eltringham 1991; Poole et al. 2013)
    • Can weigh over 5 kg (11 lb) (Fowler 1993)
    • In forest elephant, more adapted for eating softer vegetation and fruits than tough grasses (Nowak 2018)
• Growth and replacement (Laws 1966; Eltringham 1991; Lee et al. 2012; Poole et al. 2013)
  • Molars replaced as an individual ages
    • Worn-out, older teeth pushed forward in jaw
    • Teeth erupt in conveyor-belt fashion, one by one, with the leading edge of the older tooth breaking off and falling out
  • May produce 6 sets during a lifetime
    • Only 1 or 2 functional molars in each jaw half at a time
    • Last set of molars typically lost between 60 and 70 years of age
      • Uncommon but possible for individuals to reach this advanced age
      • Cannot feed properly once last teeth fall out and die of malnutrition

Ears

• Shape
  • Often likened to the continent of Africa (eg, Suedmeyer 2006; Wittemyer 2011c)
  • Forest elephant
    • Usually rounder and smaller than savanna elephant (Sikes 1971; Turkalo and Barnes 2013; Nowak 2018), though shape and size can vary and be similar to savannah elephant (Turkalo and Barnes 2013)
• Size
  • Very large (Moss 2000; Wittemyer 2011c)
    • Savanna elephant
      • Can be 150 to 200 cm (59 to 79 in) from top to bottom (Nowak 2018) and up to 120 cm (47 in) across (Poole et al. 2013)
    • Forest elephant
      • About 90 cm (35 in), or half the height of savanna elephant’s ear (Nowak 2018)
    • Twice as large of Asian elephant’s ears (Dunkin et al. 2013)
• Anatomy/structure
  • Outer ear
    • Supported by lattice-like cartilage structures, as well as muscles at base (for raising/listening and flapping) (Suedmeyer 2006; Garstang et al. 2015)
  • Inner ear
    • Middle ear structures (incus, stapes, etc.) also large (Garstang et al. 2015; Jacobson and Shoshani 2020)
    • Ear canal and inner ear adapted for low-frequency hearing (Garstang 2004; Soltis 2010; Poole et al. 2013)
  • Distance between ears is large (Suedmeyer 2006)
    • Sound waves may reach one ear much sooner than the other
    • Allows elephants to easily determine the direction of sounds
• Functions
  • Hearing
  • Communication, including social displays
  • Thermoregulation (to cool body temperature) (eg, Wittemyer 2011c; Domínguez-Oliva et al. 2022)
    • Also see Thermoregulation

Tusks

• Shape
  • Savanna elephant
    • Curve out and forward (Grubb et al. 2000; Tassy and Shoshani 2013)
  • Forest elephant (Kingdon 1979; Grubb et al. 2000; Tassy and Shoshani 2013; Turkalo and Barnes 2013)
    • Straighter and point down
    • Can be narrower than tusks of savanna elephant (but vary in thickness and shape)
• Size
  • Varies greatly across each species’ range (Wittemyer 2011a)
  • Tusks of savanna elephants larger than forest elephants (Grubb et al. 2000; Turkalo and Barnes 2013)
  • Tusks of females usually smaller than those of males (eg, Grubb et al. 2000)
    • Poachers usually target largest tusked males in a population first, followed by largest tusked females (eg, Mondol et al. 2014)
  • Longer, more symmetrical tusks often grow in elephants of mild temperament (individuals less prone to breaking tusks from fighting and tree-pushing) (Kingdon 1979, Nowak 2018)
• Density
  • Forest elephant tusks are harder (Turkalo and Barnes 2013)
    • Sturdier carving material preferred by ivory carvers in some countries
• Anatomy/structure
  • Each tusk derived from an upper incisor tooth (Wittemyer 2011c; Nowak 2018)
  • Inside tusk, crisscross lines form small diamond shaped areas (in cross section) (Schreger lines) (Shoshani 1992)
    • Unique to elephant tusks (and mammoth tusks)
    • Can help customs officials in evaluating smuggled ivory
• Development
  • Tusks present in males and females (unlike Asian elephant), though some females tuskless (Jachmann et al. 1995; Poole et al. 2013 citing Poole 1989 and Whitehouse 2002; Jones et al. 2018; Campbell-Staton et al. 2021; Poole and Granli 2022)
  • Grow continuously over a lifetime in males (Poole et al. 2013; Nowak 2018)
    • Tusk growth in females slows after age 30 [savannah elephant]
      • In Kruger National Park, stops by age 40
    • Broken tusks can regrow quickly (Poole et al. 2013; Nowak 2018)
• Functions (Shoshani and Eisenberg 1982)
  • Gather food
    • Strip tree bark
    • Knock over trees (savannah elephants)
  • Dig for water or minerals
    • Loosen soil with tusks, then dig with trunk (up to several meters deep) (Nowak 2018)
  • Defense and fighting
  • Possibly for communication or status signaling
    • Mark trees
    • Assert dominance
    • Displaying to potential mates

Legs and feet

• Limbs
  • Adapted to support weight and movement of a huge body (Kingdon 1979; Weissengruber and Forstenpointner 2004; Nagel et al. 2018; Bader et al. 2023)
  • Longer front legs allow for longer strides, helping to conserve energy while walking (Alexander et al. 1979; Kingdon 1979)
    • Also have a unique walking gait; see Locomotion
  • Robust humerus bones accommodate higher strain on forelimbs (Kingdon 1979; Bader et al. 2023)
    • Support front body and heavy head, trunk, and tusks
    • 60% of body weight is supported by the front legs (Genin et al. 2010; Ren et al. 2010)
  • Other leg bones allow for considerable rotation and flexibility (eg, while turning, climbing slopes, etc.) (Kingdon 1979)
• Feet
  • Bone arrangement
    • Elephants walk “on tiptoes,” with bone digits angled toward ground (Hutchinson et al. 2011; Poole et al. 2013)
  • Foot pads
    • Large, wedge-shaped “fat pads” cushion bottoms of feet (Weissengruber et al. 2006; Panagiotopoulou et al. 2016)
      • Absorb shock from impact with ground
      • Likely aid sensory signals (eg, vibrations, pressure)
• Toenails
  • Savanna elephant
    • 4 to 5 nails on forefeet, 3 to 5 on hind feet (Tassy and Shoshani 2013; Nowak 2018)
      • Parker and Graham (2017) found that 5 nails on forefeet and 4 nails on hind feet was most common in 3 populations from East Africa
  • Forest elephant
    • 5 nails on forefoot, 4 to 5 on hind foot (Tassy and Shoshani 2013; Nowak 2018)

Tail

• Savanna elephant
  • May be up to 1.0 to 1.5 m (3 to 5 ft) long in adults (Poole et al. 2013)
  • Tail hairs very long compared to hairs on other body areas

Skin

• Coloration
  • Savanna elephants
    • Typically, a pale-to-dark gray or brownish (Poole et al. 2013)
  • Forest elephants
    • Typically, gray (Turkalo and Barnes 2013) or a dark gray (Nowak 2018)
    • Newborns may have pinkish underside areas (Turkalo 2013)
• Wrinkles
  • Help skin retain moisture (Lillywhite and Stein 1987; Domínguez-Oliva et al. 2022)
    • Important in regulating body temperature
  • Protect trunk surface, and allow elephants to freely move trunk in all directions (Schulz et al. 2022)
• Other characteristics
  • No sweat glands (Smith 1890; Wright and Luck 1984; Lillywhite and Stein 1987), except possibly in feet (Lamps et al. 2001)

Also see Communication.

Smell

• Excellent sense of smell
• Have a very large number of olfactory receptor genes (Niimura et al. 2014)
• Perhaps the most of any mammal
• Functions
• To find food (Plotnik et al. 2014) and water (Wood et al. 2022)
• To learn about their companions, mates, and gain other social information; see Chemical communication
• Can tell odors with very subtle differences apart
• Can distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar elephants (Poole et al. 2013 citing Bates et al. 2007)
• Can distinguish between individual humans and groups of humans (Von Dürckheim et al. 2018; Kränzlin et al. 2025)
• Can remember odors for a long time (eg, Hoerner et al. 2023)

Hearing

• Well developed (Shoshani and Eisenberg 1982; Turkalo and Barnes 2013; Nowak 2018)
• Important when elephants cannot smell or see potential danger (Jacobson and Shoshani 2020)
• Exceptional low-frequency hearing ability (Poole et al. 1988; Langbauer et al. 1991; Garstang 2004, 2010)
• Hear and change behavior based on infrasonic noise (e.g., ocean waves, thunder) (Garstang 2004)
• Can communicate with other elephants across long distances, as well as individuals nearby—see Communication
• Excellent ability to detect and remember subtle differences in human voices (McComb et al. 2014)
• May use to identify threats (i.e., humans that might hunt them)

Touch

• Highly tactile animals (Langbauer 2000; Purkart et al. 2022)
• Explore environment through touch
• Communicate with other elephants through touch (e.g., show affection or aggression, greet each other, reassure, use during play, etc.)
• Face and trunk have an immense number of nerve endings (Kaufmann et al. 2022; Purkart et al. 2022)
• Trunk tip is highly sensitive (Shoshani 1997)
• Has several specialized sensory structures (Kaufmann et al. 2022), including many sensitive whiskers (Deiringer et al. 2023)
• May sense and respond to seismic vibrations, and be able to send signals to one another through ground (O’Connell-Rodwell et al. 2001; Günther et al. 2004; O’Connell-Rodwell 2007; O’Connell-Rodwell et al. 2019)
• May detect vibrations through their feet, bones, and inner ear structures, whereas hear sound with their large ears and inner ear structures (Jacobson and Shoshani 2020)

Vision

• Considered limited and not as important as other senses (Vidya and Sukumar 2005; Jacobson and Shoshani 2020)
• Sensitive to movement (Vidya and Sukumar 2005)
• May have better vision in front of head, for using their trunk effectively (Jacobson and Shoshani 2020)
• Poorer vision to sides of their body
• Best vision thought to be within 5 m (15 ft) of head, but probably able to view landscapes/horizons (Stone and Halasz 1989; Pettigrew et al. 2010)
• Appear to have some color vision (Jacobson and Shoshani 2020)
• Dichromatic; comparable to that of color-blind humans
• May be useful in lower light conditions and in dense forests (less effective in bright light)
• Do well in discrimination-type tasks (telling things or humans apart) (Jacobson and Shoshani 2020)

Staying cool

• Physiological adaptations
• Large ear surface area (eg, Dunkin et al. 2013)
• Thin skin on back of ears (Suedmeyer 2006; Poole et al. 2013)
• Networks of blood vessels lie close to skin surface, allowing heat to leave body (Suedmeyer 2006)
• Happens in combination with ear flapping (Smith 1890; Wright and Luck 1984; Dunkin et al. 2013)
• Wrinkles improve skin’s ability to retain moisture (Lillywhite and Stein 1987; Domínguez-Oliva et al. 2022)
• Lack sweat glands (Smith 1890; Wright and Luck 1984; Lillywhite and Stein 1987)
• Possibly present in feet (Lamps et al. 2001)
• Behavioral adaptations
• Regulate body temperature with various behaviors:
• Seek shade
• Rest
• Shift activity to nighttime hours
• Get skin wet (or cover skin)
• Frequently bathe with water, dirt, grasses, and/or mud (Wright and Luck 1984; Dunkin et al. 2013; Mole et al. 2016; Domínguez-Oliva et al. 2022)
• Water and mud adhere to wrinkly skin, which boosts evaporative cooling (ie, moisture pulls heat away from body)
• Flap ears, which dissipates a lot of body heat (Buss and Estes 1971; Wright 1984; Phillips and Heath 1992; Dunkin et al. 2013; Koffi et al. 2014; Domínguez-Oliva et al. 2022)
• Also see “Ears”

Skeleton

• Skull
• Sinuses with extensive honeycomb-like structure (Kingdon 1979; Poole et al. 2013; Turkalo and Barnes 2013 citing Badoux 1961)
• Air spaces reduce skull’s weight, improving head movement
• Support muscle attachment and tusk position
• Protect brain from motion shocks

Brain

• Very large brain (Shoshani et al. 2006; Hart et al. 2008; Poole et al. 2013)
• Largest of all land mammals (by volume)
• Weighs about 5 kg (11 lb), on average [savannah elephant]
• Savannah elephant
• Brain is about 3 times larger than a human’s and contains 3 times as many brain cells (neurons) (Herculano-Houzel et al. 2014)
• Complex structure
• Large lobe areas associated with learning and heightened sense of smell (Shoshani and Eisenberg 1982; Shoshani et al. 2006)
• Enlarged brain areas related to facial nerves (for using trunk for touch and smell) (Kaufmann et al. 2022)
• Folding suggests strong abilities for longer-term processing and integrating vast amounts of information (eg, Hart et al. 2008; Poole et al. 2013; Herculano-Houzel et al. 2014; Hope et al. 2024)
• A specialized type of nerve cell may contribute to social awareness and possibly allows them to understand the mental states of others (Hakeem et al. 2006; Poole et al. 2013)
• Most comparable to brains of great apes, humans, and whales, dolphins, and porpoises (eg, Shoshani and Eisenberg 1982; Shoshani et al. 2006)
• Cognitive abilities
• Examples (see references in reviews by Poole et al. 2013 and Hope et al. 2024)
• Social learning and basic forms of teaching
• Recognition of scents and voices
• Empathy (and altruism)
• Using simple tools
• Vocal imitation
• Exceptional memories—in both space and time, and also social relationships (McComb et al. 2001; Hart et al. 2008; Hoerner et al. 2023; Hope et al. 2024 Oct 22)
• Heightened memory for places (for navigating large ranges), events, and recognizing other individuals, especially relatives (McComb et al. 2001; Poole et al. 2013; Presotto et al. 2019)
• Thought to be self-aware (Poole et al. 2013; Dale and Plotnik 2017)
• Better studied in Asian elephants (see works by Plotnik and colleagues)

Glands

• Temporal glands
• Pair of scent glands located between eyes and ears
• Secretes pheromones
• Adult males
• Dark, thick liquid secreted, particularly during musth (Poole and Moss 1981; Poole 1987)
• Females and some young males
• Savanna elephant
• Dark, watery liquid secreted when stressed, afraid, or excited by social interactions (eg, Sikes 1971; Buss et al. 1976; Poole et al. 2013 citing Poole and Granli 2003, and J. Poole, pers. obs.; also see dissertations by J. Poole (1982) and I. Douglas-Hamilton (1972))
• Forest elephant
• Secretions rarely observed, but possibly induced by stress (Turkalo and Barnes 2013)
• Mammary glands
• Pair located between forelegs of adult females (Eltringham 1991)

Lungs

• Unusual anatomy, even among mammals (Eltringham 1991; Brown et al. 1997; Isaza 2006)
• No pleural cavity
• Breathing caused by muscle activity, not negative pressure
• Lungs partially attached to ribs, diaphragm, and chest wall by stretchy connective tissue (a network of collagen fibers), which fill the pleural space (Kingdon 1979 citing Short 1964; Eltringham 1991; Brown et al. 1997; Isaza 2006)
• Contributes to elephant’s ability to produce strong suction through their trunk/nostrils
• Combined with lung’s internal support structures, possibly helps prevent the lungs from collapsing or overexpanding (eg, while suctioning water) (see Isaza 2006)

Heart

• Shape
• Double apex at base of heart (two pointed lobes instead of one, which most mammals have) (Shoshani 1996; Nowak 2018)
• Makes an elephant’s heart more circular-looking
• Manatees and dugongs also have double-apex hearts
• Weight
• 12 to 21 kg (27 to 46 lb) (Eltringham 1991)

An elephant's trunk is incredibly flexible and strong, thanks to their wrinkly skin and groups of muscles that run in various directions.

Trunks can do so many things — breathing, smelling, drinking and eating, picking up objects of all sizes, spraying dirt on their skin, feeling vibrations, snorkeling underwater, and communicating with other elephants through touch and visual displays.

Image credit: © San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance. All rights reserved.