Sexual behavior/courtship
Mate preference
Bulls aggresive during musth
Year-round reproduction
Estrus cycle of cow is unusually long
Gestation
Birth
Interbirth interval
Reproductive Rate
Infant (< 1 year old)
Adults
In the wild (Lee et al. 2012, 2016)
In managed care (ZIMS 2017)
Comparing wild vs. managed care
Predators
Accidents and natural disasters
Killed by humans
Natural aging
African elephant calf with family.
Image credit: © San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance. All rights reserved.
African elephant calf.
Image credit: © San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance. All rights reserved.
Eltringham (1992)
Estes (1991)
Estes (1993)
Fowler (1993)
Moss (2000)
Sukumar (2003)
ZIMS (2017)