African Elephants (Loxodonta africana and L. cyclotis) Fact Sheet: Behavior & Ecology

Daily patterns

• Savanna elephants
  • Active day and night, but usually rest during hottest times of day (Guy 1976; Leggett 2010; Nowak 2018)
  • More active at night during dry seasons and in dry areas (Loarie, Aarde, et al. 2009), and where poachers or human disturbance occur (Von Gerhardt et al. 2014; Gaynor et al. 2018; Ihwagi et al. 2018)
• Forest elephants
  • Early research suggests activity during the day and at night (Wrege et al. 2012; Turkalo et al. 2013; Kely et al. 2019; Reyna-Hurtado et al. 2023)
  • Some studies suggest feeding until about 14:00 and greater variety of behavior—excavating, bathing, fighting, sleeping—in the afternoon (Nowak 2018)
  • In one study, moved between forest and grasslands at dawn and dusk (Mills et al. 2018)
  • Avoid poachers and human activity during the day, similar to savanna elephant (Wrege et al. 2010; Beirne et al. 2021)

Feeding

• Accounts for majority of wakeful activity (Beekman and Prins 1989)
• Foraging in the morning thought to help elephants conserve energy and reduce heat stress (eg, Du Plessis et al. 2021)
• Savanna elephant
  • Generally, at least half of active time spent feeding (eg, Wyatt and Eltringham 1974; Lindsay 2011; see literature reviewed by Sach et al. 2019)
    • May be up to 80%, when less food available (e.g., dry season, drought years)
• Forest elephant
  • Thought to forage mainly during the day (Blake 2002; Turkalo and Barnes 2013)
• Also see Diet & Feeding

Resting and sleeping

• Savanna elephant
  • Generally, rest for short periods several times a day (eg, Wittemyer et al. 2017)
    • Sleep for relatively brief periods (typically about 1 to 2 hours), for a total of about 3 to 5 hours in each 24-hour period (Eltringham 1982; Estes 1993; Wittemyer et al. 2017)
  • Commonly rest/sleep late at night, between midnight and dawn, and during the early afternoon (hottest time of day) (eg, Wittemyer et al. 2017; Nowak 2018)
    • Desert populations may have distinct nighttime rest periods (Leggett 2010)
  • May sleep at night lying down, but usually rest standing up during the day (Eltringham 1982; Poole et al. 2013)
  • For groups, sleeping and waking often synchronized within the herd (Eltringham 1982)

Human impacts

• Today, elephant ranges and movements mainly structured by human settlements and land use (including managed protected areas) (eg, Blake et al. 2008; Molina‐Vacas et al. 2020; Gobush et al. 2021; Leimgruber and Songer 2021; Wall et al. 2021)
  • Green forage, surface water, and other environmental factors influence elephant space use within range constraints exerted by humans (Young et al. 2009; Wall et al. 2021; Benitez et al. 2022)

Home range

• Savanna elephants
  • Annual range size of roughly 100 to 300 km², according to a continent-wide study by Wall et al. (2021)
    • Largest home ranges observed in desert-dwelling elephants (eg, Wall et al. 2013)
  • Adult males and females typically use distinct areas, except during breeding (see Poole et al. 2013)
  • Move to find water and high-quality forage (Bohrer et al. 2014; Nowak 2018)
  • Elephants constantly learn and recall detailed knowledge of landscapes (Polansky et al. 2015 and see Presotto et al. 2019)
• Forest elephants
  • Annually, range over an area of less than 100 km², up to 2,000 km² (Turkalo and Barnes 2013; Beirne et al. 2021)
  • May move more during the wet season, while seeking out preferred fruits (Mills et al. 2018; Beirne et al. 2020)
  • Home ranges of females slightly smaller than males (Beirne et al. 2021; Wall et al. 2021)
  • More study needed, but at least some individuals appear to continually shift and explore their home range (Turkalo et al. 2013; Beirne et al. 2021)
    • Similar to savannah elephant (eg, Goldenberg et al. 2018)

Migration

• Savanna elephant
  • Various movement patterns reported in different regions, depending on amount of food and water available (Gobush et al. 2022)
    • Resident, migratory, semi-migratory, or nomadic-like movements
    • Some herds show strong fidelity to their past wet or dry season range areas (eg, Burton-Roberts et al. 2022)
  • May move long distances each year in search of green vegetation and water (Bohrer et al. 2014; Tshipa et al. 2017; Nowak 2018)
    • Do not move far if food, water, and shade remain available across seasons (Nowak 2018)
    • Artificial (human-made) water holes expand elephants’ dry season range (see Loarie, Aarde, et al. 2009) and allow some elephants to remain resident year-round (Tshipa et al. 2017)
  • During drought, experienced matriarchs use their knowledge of water and food sources to lead herds across long distances (eg, Foley et al. 2008; Byrne and Bates 2011; also see McComb et al. 2001, 2011)
    • Similar leadership roles recently discovered among male elephants (see O’Connell-Rodwell et al. 2024)
  • May use environmental cues, such as rainfall, to time movements as the wet season begins (Kioko et al. 2020; Pandraud et al. 2022)
• Forest elephants
  • Seasonal movements influenced by temperature and rainfall, despite living in wet forests (Beirne et al. 2020; Beirne et al. 2021)
  • Tend to use similar areas from year to year, though males may be more migratory and females more resident (Turkalo and Barnes 2013; Turkalo and Fay 1995; Turkalo et al. 2013; Molina‐Vacas et al. 2020; Beirne et al. 2021)  

Dispersal

• Savanna elephants
  • Males (Vidya and Sukumar 2005; Poole et al. 2013 citing Lee and Moss 1999)
    • Near puberty, leave birth family for extended periods to socialize with other families (Evans and Harris 2008; Lee, Poole, et al. 2011; Nowak 2018)
      • Later, disperse and leave birth family permanently
    • Full independence reached gradually (Lee and Moss 1999)
      • Process can take 5 months to as long as 8 years [Amboseli population] (Lee, Poole, et al. 2011)
      • On average, occurs at around 13 to 14 years old—but ages range from 7 to 19 years old [Amboseli, Samburu populations] (Lee, Poole, et al. 2011; Wittemyer et al. 2013)
  • Females
    • Continue living with birth family, though might disperse as a family group, singly, or in female pairs—eg, to recolonize unoccupied habitat areas (Ahlering et al. 2012)
• Forest elephants
  • Both sexes gradually separate from birth family (Turkalo et al. 2018)
    • Female forest elephant behavior very different from female savannah elephant, where daughters usually remain with herds that include their mothers, sisters, and grandmothers (matriarchal groups) (Turkalo et al. 2018)
    • Possible social strategy to prevent competition between offspring and their parents (Turkalo et al. 2018; Goldenberg et al. 2021)
      • Daughters may disperse when ready to give birth to their first calf or when mother dedicates increased care to younger siblings (Turkalo et al. 2018; Goldenberg et al. 2021)
  • Age at independence
    • About 15 years old (median age for both males and females) (Turkalo et al. 2018)
      • But some individuals may separate from mother or conceive at younger ages (Turkalo 2013; Turkalo et al. 2017; Turkalo et al. 2018)
      • Reach full independence months or years after initial separation (Turkalo et al. 2017; Turkalo et al. 2018)

Social structure

• Fission–fusion social structure in both species (eg, Moss and Poole 1983; Wittemyer et al. 2005; Archie et al. 2006; Wittemyer et al. 2009; Moss and Lee 2011b; Fishlock and Lee 2013; Head et al. 2013; Poole et al. 2013; Athira and Vidya 2021)
  • Members of a group change often, coming together to form larger groups and splitting apart
    • Fusing more common when food more abundant
    • Splitting more common when food is scarce
  • Dynamics influenced by many factors, including social bonds, season, home ranges, habitat, reproductive state, and genetic relatedness
  • Excellent memory for recognizing family members and distinguishing between familiar/unfamiliar individuals
• Savanna elephants
  • Adults usually split into same-sex groups (Moss and Poole 1983; Kioko et al. 2020)
    • Adult males usually associate with females for only short periods
    • Also see “Social associations among males,” below
  • Herd behavior is highly gregarious (eg, Douglas-Hamilton 1972; Lee 1987; McComb et al. 2011; Nowak 2018)
    • Group members cooperate to find resources, defend the herd, and care for calves (females)
      • Also see Defense and Parental Care
  • Females form complex social bonds—among the most complex of any animal (eg, Moss and Poole 1983; Moss and Lee 2011b; Goldenberg et al. 2016)
    • Solitary females very rare (Nowak 2018)
  • Groups tend to consist of adult females—primarily female relatives and their offspring (e.g., Douglas-Hamilton 1972; Douglas-Hamilton 1972 citing Laws and Parker 1968; Archie et al. 2006; Moss and Lee 2011b; Charif et al. 2015)
    • Led by matriarch
    • Often multi-generational, where grandmothers, and their daughters and granddaughters live together
  • Usually about 10 to 25 individuals in a core group (family group) (Kingdon 1979; Young et al. 2009; McKnight 2015)
    • But have relationships with extended family, so groups may become several times larger—more than 50 individuals (Owens and Owens 2009; Moss and Lee 2011b; Poole et al. 2013)
    • Mixed groups (eg, breeding groups) may include 1 or more adult males (eg, McKnight 2015)
    • Where poaching occurs, a “group” may be reduced to a single female and her one offspring (Owens and Owens 2009; Moss and Lee 2011b)
  • Affiliations beyond extended family groups known as “clans” (Laws 1969; Moss and Poole 1983; Wittemyer et al. 2005; Archie et al. 2011; Poole et al. 2013; Charif et al. 2015; Nowak 2018)
    • For detailed information about core, bond, and clan groups, see Wittemyer et al. (2005) and review by Athira and Vidya (2021)
  • Large, temporary aggregations in open habitats can reach into the hundreds of individuals (Moss 1988; Owens and Owens 2009; Poole et al. 2013; McKnight 2015; Nowak 2018)
• Forest elephants
  • Very different social organization than savanna elephant—more similar to Asian elephants, which also commonly live in forests (eg, White et al. 1993; Turkalo and Fay 1995; Turkalo et al. 2017; Goldenberg et al. 2021; Blake and Maisels 2023)
    • Difference may be due to patchy food or difficulty of traveling through dense forest in larger groups
    • Social role of matriarchs limited or absent outside of small family groups, which are comprised of mothers and their offspring
      • No extended matriarchal hierarchies, as in savanna elephants
  • Females typically observed in small groups of 2 to 5 individuals, but also commonly observed singly (White et al. 1993; Turkalo and Fay 1995; Turkalo et al. 2013; Nowak 2018; Reyna-Hurtado et al. 2023)
    • Groups commonly comprised of 1 or 2 related females and their dependent young (White et al. 1993; Turkalo and Fay 1995; Turkalo et al. 2013; Turkalo and Barnes 2013; Goldenberg et al. 2021; Reyna-Hurtado et al. 2023)
  • Core groups have stable associations over time (Goldenberg et al. 2021; Blake and Maisels 2023)
    • Uncommonly, 2 or 3 core groups may temporarily fuse (Head et al. 2013)
  • Sometimes aggregate in natural forest clearings and at mineral springs (Turkalo and Fay 1995; Fishlock and Lee 2013; Turkalo et al. 2013; Turkalo and Barnes 2013; Goldenberg et al. 2021)
    • Larger family units of up to 20 individuals observed at Dzanga clearing, Central African Republic (Turkalo and Barnes 2013)
  • Adult males mainly associate with females during breeding (Turkalo et al. 2013; Nowak 2018)  

Social associations among males

• Savanna elephants
  • Solitary males common (Chiyo et al. 2011; Nowak 2018)
  • Some males not very sociable (Poole 1987; Ahlering et al. 2012; Nowak 2018), some associate with unrelated males, and others still more highly bonded (O’Connell-Rodwell et al. 2024)
    • Males (not in musth) can have temporary, yet sometimes strong social ties (Goldenberg et al. 2014; Nowak 2018; O’Connell-Rodwell et al. 2024)
    • Other adult males maintain stable social relationships (in connected networks) over long time periods (Murphy et al. 2019; O’Connell-Rodwell et al. 2024)
  • Group sizes
    • McKnight (2015) reported groups of up to 18 males
  • Older males—or those more integrated or dominant in a group’s social network—strengthen associations among group members (Chiyo et al. 2011) and are more likely to lead group movements (Allen et al. 2020; O’Connell-Rodwell et al. 2024)
    • Younger males—those without in-depth spatial and ecological knowledge—thought to follow and gain ecological knowledge from experienced, adult males (Allen et al. 2020)
• Forest elephants
  • Juvenile and subadult males associate temporarily for a day to several days (Turkalo and Barnes 2013)
  • Adult males usually live singly, outside of breeding periods (White et al. 1993; Turkalo and Fay 1995; Fishlock and Lee 2013; Head et al. 2013; Head et al. 2013; Turkalo and Barnes 2013; Nowak 2018)
    • Rarely form bachelor groups (of only 2 to 3 individuals)

Dominance hierarchies

• Savanna elephants
  • Strong linear dominance hierarchies (Archie et al. 2006; Wittemyer and Getz 2007; de Silva et al. 2017)
  • Individual and group dominance structured by age (older = typically more dominant) (eg, Athira and Vidya 2021)
    • Older, larger females dominant to smaller, younger females (Archie et al. 2006; Nowak 2018)
    • Larger families with older matriarchs dominant to smaller family groups (Mutinda et al. 2011)
      • Have better access to preferred habitats and water, particularly during the dry season (Wittemyer et al. 2007)
  • Males in musth, especially those of larger body size, dominant to males not in musth (eg, Poole and Moss 1981; Hall-Martin 1987; Poole 1987; Poole 1989a)
    • Presence of adult males regulates behavior of younger males (eg, less defensive/aggressive and less fearful) (eg, Slotow et al. 2000; Allen et al. 2021)
  • Males form linear hierarchies when resources (eg, water) are limited (O’Connell-Rodwell et al. 2011)
• Forest elephants
  • Males confront other males in forest clearings and at waterholes to establish/maintain their dominance status (Turkalo and Fay 1995; Turkalo and Barnes 2013; Nowak 2018)
  • Adult males more dominant than females and juvenile males (eg, at waterholes) (Turkalo and Fay 1995)
    • When present, tend to control access to preferred waterholes and minerals for long periods (Turkalo and Fay 1995; Wrege et al. 2012)  

Orphaned calves—challenges

• Calves unlikely to survive if orphaned before reaching 2 years old (Poole and Cobb 1989; Poole and Thomsen 1989; Moss and Lee 2011; Parker et al. 2021)
• Survivors may or may not become fully integrated into a new social group (Goldenberg and Wittemyer 2018)
• Weaker social bonds with adult females can result in orphans having less access to resources, such as food, water, or shade (Goldenberg and Wittemyer 2017; Goldenberg and Wittemyer 2018)
• May not gain social or nuanced survival knowledge typically learned from members of their birth family (Goldenberg and Wittemyer 2017; McComb, Shannon, et al. 2011; Shannon et al. 2022)
• Orphans may be subjected to more aggression from group members, compared to non-orphans, which likely causes more stress (Goldenberg and Wittemyer 2018)
  • However, some elephants may be able to adapt to prolonged stress (see Parker et al. 2022; Pokharel and Brown 2023)
• Stunted growth observed among orphans of one Kenyan population (Parker and Wittemyer 2022)

Chemical communication

• Elephants emit complex chemical compounds through their urine, dung, breath, saliva, skin, and in secretions produced by glands on their head, ears, and feet (also see Glands) (Rasmussen 1998; Rasmussen and Krishnamurthy 2000; Vidya and Sukumar 2005; Bagley et al. 2006; Riddle et al. 2006; Goodwin et al. 2012; Poole et al. 2013; also see Jainudeen et al. 1972 and studies by Rassmussen and colleagues on the Asian elephant)
• Odors may convey information about age, maturity (or reproductive status), and kinship (eg, Rasmussen and Schulte 1998; Bagley et al. 2006; Allen et al. 2021; Von Dürckheim et al. 2022)
• Elephants use sense of smell to assess the emotional and physiological states of other elephants (Vidya and Sukumar 2005; works by C. Moss)
• Odors important in individual recognition and for maintaining social relationships (Vidya and Sukumar 2005)
  • Each individual has a unique odor profile (Von Dürckheim et al. 2022)
  • May jointly use odor and acoustic cues to recognize family members and other elephants (Von Dürckheim et al. 2022), even over long time spans (eg, Hoerner et al. 2023)
• Members of a group also appear to have a distinctive, shared odor profile shaped by social interactions, not genetic relatedness (Von Dürckheim et al. 2022)
  • May help to promote group cohesion
    • Similar to some other social mammals with fission–fusion social structures

Vocal communication

• Role in social life
  • Elephants vocalize often to maintain contact and coordinate their behavior and movements (Turkalo and Barnes 2013; O’Connell-Rodwell et al. 2024)
  • Females generally more vocal than males and produce more kinds of calls (Poole 1989b; Langbauer 2000; Leong, Ortolani, Burks et al. 2003; Wood et al. 2005; Soltis 2010; Stoeger and de Silva 2014; reviewed by Morris‐Drake and Mumby 2018)
    • Female herd members sometimes give calls “in chorus” after social events, such as a mating or calf birth, calf rescue, greeting ceremony, or after protecting/defending one another (Poole 2011)
• Frequency range
  • Elephants make loud, powerful vocalizations and also very low frequency sounds (e.g., Payne et al. 1986; Langbauer et al. 1991; Langbauer 2000; Poole 2011; Stoeger and de Silva 2014)
    • Able to produce because of large head and body size, resonance within trunk and pharyngeal pouch, and their versatile vocal organs (see Poole et al. 2013)
  • High-frequency calls
    • Can reach 10,000 Hz (eg, trumpets, snorts) (see sources in Poole et al. 2013, Nowak 2018)
  • Low-frequency calls (Payne et al. 1986; Garstang 2010; Thompson et al. 2010; Stoeger and de Silva 2014)
    • Often infrasonic (below 20 Hz)—under the lower limit of human hearing
    • Help adults maintain contact over long distances (de Silva 2010; Poole et al. 2013; Turkalo and Barnes 2013)
      • Forest elephants may use low-frequency calls over shorter distances (Hedwig et al. 2018)
• Wide vocal repertoire (reviewed by Soltis 2009, Poole 2011, and Stoeger 2021)
  • About 8 to 10 distinct call types; structure of each is variable and flexible (see Stoeger 2021)
  • Rumbles
    • Frequencies vary, but most rumbles are infrasonic (Poole et al. 1988; Stoeger 2021)
      • Rumbles as low as 5 Hz reported for forest elephants and 8 Hz for savanna elephants (Payne et al. 2003; Poole 2011; Shoshani and Tassy 2013)
    • Used over both long and short distances, and can be emitted by the trunk (nasal passages) or mouth (Stoeger 2021)
      • Savanna elephants can detect low-frequency rumbles at a distance of several kilometers (Langbauer et al. 1991)—but most social information generally communicated over less than 1 km (0.6 mi) (McComb et al. 2003; McComb, Reby, et al. 2011)
    • Used in almost all social interactions and reproductive contexts (e.g., Poole et al. 1988; Soltis et al. 2005; Soltis et al. 2009; Poole 2011; Stoeger 2021)
      • Social greetings
      • Likely promote group cohesion
        • Appear to modulate social group spacing/movements (e.g., Leighty et al. 2008; Poole 2011; O’Connell-Rodwell et al. 2012; O’Connell-Rodwell et al. 2024)
        • Sometimes given during feeding, or while calves nurse
      • Facilitate courtship and sexual behavior (e.g., to find mates over long distances)
      • Elevated, more bellowing rumbles given when fearful or agitated
    • Social rumbles individually distinctive (Soltis et al. 2005; Soltis 2010; Soltis 2013; Stoeger and Baotic 2016; Wierucka et al. 2021; Pardo et al. 2024a)
      • Stable acoustic “signature”
    • One study found “wild African elephants address one another with individually specific calls” (Pardo et al. 2024b)
      • Suggests name-like vocalized “labels” for each individual
      • Very rare, even among social mammals
      • May help to reinforce social bonds or get the attention of specific individuals over longer distances
    • Subtle differences in rumble sound structure among social groups (Pardo et al. 2024a)
      • More similar among members of a core group
      • Likely learned from group members
  • Trumpets (e.g., Poole 2011; Stoeger and de Silva 2014; Gilbert et al. 2017)
    • Blow through trunk sharply
      • May also have vocal organ components
    • Indicate excitement, or given when distressed or defensive
    • Poole (2011) reports some trumpets reaching 10,000 Hz
  • “Screams”
    • Adult distress call
    • Often combined with trumpets
    • Possibly given to intimidate the source of a perceived threat
  • Other vocalizations
    • Many—examples include snorts, cries, barks, grunts, etc. (Poole 2011)

• Mating vocalizations
  • See Courtship
• Calf vocalizations
  • Begging-type calls
    • Give when want to nurse (Poole 2011)
  • “Roars”
    • Calves/juveniles produce when distressed or feel heightened emotions (Stoeger et al. 2011)
  • Many other calls
    • Wide range of sounds, such as squeals, cries, whines, and screeches (see Poole 2011)
      • Give when alarmed, distressed, or desire attention/comfort
• Vocal imitation (Poole et al. 2005; Poole 2011; Poole et al. 2013)
  • Elephants can learn to modify their vocalizations in response to something they hear
  • Rare ability among animals
  • Thought to enhance social bonding and stability of group relationships

Acoustic (seismic) communication

• Some low-frequency elephant vocalizations travel through the ground (as surface waves), as well as through the air (O’Connell et al. 1997; reviewed by O’Connell 2007)
• Not fully understood, but might use ground vibrations—to some extent—to communicate, monitor potential threats, and possibly respond to changing environmental conditions (eg, O’Connell-Rodwell et al. 2006; Mortimer et al. 2021)
  • Still unknown how elephants’ bodies and brains sense, receive, and interpret seismic information
  • Communication through ground vibrations could be used alongside hearing, or used when calls don’t easily travel through air (eg, windy or noisy conditions) (O’Connell 2007)
• Scientific observations
  • Elephant families shown to sense and respond defensively to alarm calls with seismic components (O’Connell-Rodwell et al. 2006)
    • Watch African elephants at the San Diego Zoo Safari park response to an earthquake in April 2025
  • Elephants appear capable of telling different kinds of seismic vibrations apart—for example, discriminating between ground noise made by elephants vs. humans (Mortimer et al. 2021)
• Elephant’s feet, skull, and ear bones seem adapted for detecting seismic vibrations (Reuter et al. 1998; O’Connell et al. 1999; O’Connell-Rodwell et al. 2001; O’Connell 2007; O’Connell-Rodwell et al. 2019)
  • Fatty pad beneath bones in foot might help elephants sense ground vibrations (O’Connell 2007, Fig. 4)

Tactile communication

• Functions (Vidya and Sukumar 2005; Poole and Granli 2011; Nowak 2018)
  • Explore surroundings
  • Interact with herd members—eg, to provide reassurance, affection, and during play
    • Important in mother–calf interactions
  • Show aggression or dominance (eg, push, shove)
• Trunk
  • Very sensitive (Vidya and Sukumar 2005)
    • Can detect minute vibrations
    • See Trunk
  • Used to initiate contact with many parts of another elephant’s body
    • Trunk, head, mouth, tail, and genital areas
  • Greet one another with trunks
    • Trunk may be held out to an approaching elephant
    • Sometimes insert trunk tip into another elephant’s mouth
      • May be a way to investigate the other’s food, health, or reproductive state
  • Mother often uses trunk to guide or communicate with calf

Visual communication

• Combination of body postures, and ear, trunk, and limb movements (Poole et al. 2013)
• See The Elephant Ethogram project by ElephantVoices and review by Poole and Granli (2011)

Defense

• Submission behaviors:
  • Retreat/run away (Poole 1989a)
  • Back away (Poole and Granli 2011)
  • Lower head (Poole 1989a; Nowak 2018)
    • Attempt to appear smaller (Poole et al. 2013)
  • Flatten ears (vs. relaxed or flared ears) (Poole and Granli 2011)
  • Touching own face with trunk (displacement behavior) (Langbauer 2000; Poole et al. 2013)
• Move away (retreat) from perceived threats, such as:
  • Elephants giving alarm vocalizations or unfamiliar individuals/groups (McComb et al. 2003; Poole et al. 2013)
  • Bees (King et al. 2007; Cook et al. 2018)
  • Humans and tourist vehicles (Szott et al. 2019; Mortimer et al. 2021)
• Herd members cluster together (Douglas-Hamilton 1972; Poole and Granli 2011)
  • Young elephants stay between or behind adults for protection

Aggression

• Threat behaviors (Poole and Granli 2011; Poole et al. 2013)
  • Gaze intently
  • Step or lunge toward opponent
    • May also swing trunk forward and trumpet (vocalize)
  • Many ear and trunk postures
    • Spread/flare ears
    • Raise head, tusks, and/or trunk
    • Head shaking, nodding, jerking, or swaying common
  • Attempt to appear larger
    • Stand as tall as possible
    • May even stand on high ground (eg, anthill or log)
  • Mock charge or charge
    • Will chase away hyaenas and other scavengers (Poole et al. 2013)
  • Kick dust
  • Throw objects/debris at opponent
• Group dynamics
  • Aggression among herd members is rare (Nowak 2018)
  • Most interactions between family members, extended groups, and even non-relatives generally friendly (Poole et al. 2013)
  • Can differ among populations and change when competing for access to scarce resources, such as water or minerals (eg, Turkalo and Fay 1995; Poole et al. 2013; Turkalo and Barnes 2013; Chamaillé‐Jammes et al. 2014)
• Females
  • Matriarch or another large female often help defend younger family members (Poole 2011)
  • Mothers protective of calves (Wisniewska et al. 2015; Nowak 2018)
    • When encountering a predator, females and calves may freeze and bunch together, then decide whether to charge or retreat (Poole 2011)
• Males
  • Interactions among nonbreeding males generally amicable (Poole et al. 2013)
    • Also see Social associations among males
  • Males, especially males in musth, compete with one another for dominance and mates (Hall-Martin 1987; Poole 1987; Poole 1989a; Poole et al. 2013; Nowak 2018)
  • Most fights involve displays and/or pushing and tusk use that don’t cause injuries (eg, Poole and Granli 2011; Nowak 2018)
    • Chase, trunk wrestle, and push
    • Thrash bushes with tusks
    • Dig into ground with tusks
    • Drive opponent out of immediate vicinity
  • Escalated fights are rare (Poole 1989a)—but can lead to injury and death (Hall-Martin 1987)
    • Tusks can break or cause puncture wounds (Hall-Martin 1987; Poole 1989a)
    • Exertion of fighting can also cause heat stress (Poole 1989a)
  • See Musth (in males) for discussion of conflict avoidance

Home ranges commonly overlap

• Not territorial (both species) (Shoshani 1992; Poole et al. 2013; Nowak 2018)
• Generally, home ranges overlap, especially those of family groups (Douglas-Hamilton 1972; Nowak 2018)
• But groups may segregate by social rank or use home ranges with less overlap to avoid competing for resources (eg, during drought) (eg, Wittemyer et al. 2007; Blake and Maisels 2023)

Play behavior

• Observed from infancy through adulthood, though declines over a lifetime (Lee and Moss 2014)
• Elephants curious and quick to investigate (Poole and Granli 2011)
• May use all parts of body—trunk, mouth, tusk, feet, etc.
• Helps juveniles develop physical abilities, as well as social skills (eg, Evans and Harris 2008; Lee and Moss 2014)
• Females: develop protector and leadership roles within families; play with younger calves
• Males: engage with non-relatives; develop social relationships
• Both gentle and “rough-and-tumble” play observed (eg, Evans and Harris 2008; Poole and Granli 2011; Lee and Moss 2014)
• Wrestle, shove, and spar
• Splash and spray water
• Roll in mud
• Mock charge and chase other elephants
• Manipulate objects or lift/thrash vegetation
• Give trumpet sounds (Poole 2011)
• Young elephants chase mammals and birds (Poole et al. 2013)

Grief and consolation behaviors

• Elephants investigate, approach, smell, and touch other dead elephants, including relatives and non-relatives (eg, Moss 1992; Payne 2003; Douglas-Hamilton et al. 2006; Poole and Granli 2011; Hawley et al. 2018; Goldenberg and Wittemyer 2020; Stephan et al. 2020)
• Some other example responses include social behaviors, nudging or lifting behaviors, guarding the body, fear-related behaviors, picking up bones (Moss 1992; Poole 1996; Payne 2003; Douglas-Hamilton et al. 2006; Goldenberg and Wittemyer 2020; Stephan et al. 2020), attempting to feed an elephant that died, or covering the dead body with dirt or vegetation (Moss 1992; Poole and Granli 2011)
• Behavior varies greatly from individual to individual
• Lifting the body and vocalizations reported only when an elephant had recently died (Goldenberg and Wittemyer 2020)
• Elephants may interact with dead individuals for extended periods, particularly using their highly developed sense of smell (Goldenberg and Wittemyer 2020)
• Show interest in other kinds of dead animals (Poole et al. 2013)
• Some individuals engage more with elephant remains vs. non-elephant remains (McComb et al. 2006; Goldenberg and Wittemyer 2020)

General

• Elephants are one of the last remaining “mega-herbivores” on Earth (Owen-Smith 1988; Berzaghi, Longo, et al. 2019)
  • Eat large amounts of plant material and impact plants through many behaviors (foraging, trampling, digging, etc.) (Scogings et al. 2012; Asner et al. 2016; Cook et al. 2017; Cardoso et al. 2020)
  • Redistribute important nutrients across landscapes and among habitats—eg, from rainforests to woodlands to shrublands and floodplains, and from forest interiors to forest edges (Turkalo and Fay 1995; Blake et al. 2009; Turkalo et al. 2013; Skarpe et al. 2014; Poulsen et al. 2018; Gobush et al. 2021)
• Considered “ecological engineers,” “forest architects” (Abernethy et al. 2013; Poulsen et al. 2018), and keystone species (Ripple et al. 2015; Gordon et al. 2023)

Impact on plants

• Role in savannas
  • Through browsing and digging, promote landscape openness in grasslands, woodlands, wetlands, and succulent-dominated habitats (eg, Omeja et al. 2014; Asner et al. 2016; Stevens et al. 2016; Davies et al. 2018; Gobush et al. 2022; Gordon et al. 2023; Western and Mose 2023)
  • Elephants range over large areas, dispersing seeds long distances through their dung (Dudley 2000; Spanbauer and Adler 2015; Bunney et al. 2017)
    • Majority of seeds dispersed within a few kilometers, but some seeds may be spread up to 65 km (40 mi) away (Bunney et al. 2017)
    • Elephant digestion or dung may boost survival and/or germination of some seeds (see Spanbauer and Adler 2015)
  • Foraging may increase recruitment and survival of small trees (saplings) (White and Goodman 2010)
• Role in forests
  • Disperse seeds—from the fruits they eat—long distances in their dung (White et al. 1993; Blake et al. 2009; Campos-Arceiz and Blake 2011; Poulsen et al. 2018; Poulsen et al. 2021; Scalbert et al. 2023)
    • Some tree species highly dependent on elephants for their dispersal, recruitment, and long-term survival (eg, Yumoto et al. 1995; Campos-Arceiz and Blake 2011; Beaune et al. 2013)
    • Aid regeneration of some timber tree species (Scalbert et al. 2023)
  • Thin a forest’s understory by breaking branches, trampling small trees, and uprooting larger trees (White 1993; Kohi et al. 2011; Terborgh et al. 2016; Berzaghi, Longo, et al. 2019)
    • Can reduce competition among larger trees (Terborgh et al. 2016; Poulsen et al. 2018)
    • Forest elephants cause less damage to trees while browsing, compared to savanna elephants (Cardoso et al. 2020)
  • Repeated movements through forests leave wide worn trails, creating forest gaps (Vanleeuwe and Gautier‐Hion 1998; Turkalo and Barnes 2013 citing Vanleeuwe and Gautier-Hion 1998; Blake and Inkamba‐Nkulu 2004; Blake and Maisels 2023)
    • Around a forest’s edge, heavily used trails can act as a firebreak, preventing a fire from reaching the forest interior and reducing its intensity (Cardoso et al. 2018; Cardoso et al. 2020)
      • Stabilizes mosaics of savanna and forest habitats (Cardoso et al. 2020)
  • Maintain or increase size of forest clearings (“bais”)—habitats important for biodiversity (Ruggiero and Fay 1994; Klaus et al. 1998; Turkalo et al. 2013)
    • Digging, feeding, and drinking activity disrupts vegetation and compacts soil/mud along trails and at edges of bais
  • Loss of elephant activity in Central African forests (eg, from poaching) may cause Africa’s forest ecology to shift in similar ways to neotropical forests in Central and South America (Doughty et al. 2016; Poulsen et al. 2018)
    • More wind-dispersed species (vs. seed-dispersed) and lower tree diversity (Black et al. 2009)
    • Poorer soils result when large herbivores no longer present to redistribute nutrients across landscapes (Blake and Maisels 2023 citing Doughty et al. 2013a and Doughty, Wolf, Morueta-Holme, et al. 2016b)
  • May increase carbon sequestration in tropical forests by consuming leafy tree foliage (promotes growth of woody tree species), dispersing seeds, and through their trampling activity (Berzaghi, Bretagnolle, et al. 2023; Stephen Blake, personal communication, 2025)
    • Affects the types of tree species (
    • Possibly global impact on atmospheric carbon dioxide, given the size of central African rainforests

Impact on animals

• General
  • In forests, elephants play a critical ecological role in the regeneration and dispersal of fruit trees (also see “Impact on plants,” above) (Blake et al. 2009)
    • Tree leaves, fruits, and flowers then available to many plant-, fruit-, and nectar-eating animals
  • Elephant trails used by other animals
  • Elephant dung used by many decomposers, including insects (termites, beetles) and fungi (eg, Coe 1977; Masunga et al. 2006)
  • Seeds in dung used by some birds and mammals (such as baboons, river hogs, and civets) for food (Ruggiero and Eves 1998; Mubalama and Sikubwabo 2002) and by some beetles for breeding (Spanbauer and Adler 2015)
  • Browsing and tree uprooting may make more food available (ie, more leaves at lower heights) for smaller, shorter browsing animals (Kohi et al. 2011; Valeix et al. 2011)
• Invertebrates
  • Elephant feces used by many insect species, most famously dung beetles (eg, Heinrich Bartholomew 1979; Theuerkauf et al. 2009)
    • Krell and Krell-Westerwalbesloh (2024) estimated that dung from a single adult savanna elephant could potentially provide for 2 million dung beetles each day
  • Elephant footprints containing water are quickly colonized by small invertebrates, such as water beetles and flies (Remmers et al. 2017)
    • Dragonflies observed to defend a water-filled footprint as a territory (Remmers et al. 2017)
  • Elephants, because they wallow in mud, may aid long-distance dispersal of small freshwater invertebrates (Vanschoenwinkel et al. 2011)
  • Elephants can influence insect and spider communities through their impacts on plants (e.g., opening forest canopy, disturbing leaf litter) (Banks et al. 2010; Haddad et al. 2010)
  • Large herbivores, like elephants and rhinos, feed and leave behind dead wood that termites consume (Levick et al. 2010)
    • Termite mounds, in turn, are a source of nutritious food for elephants (eg, Holdo and McDowell 2004)
• Amphibians and reptiles
  • Elephants can influence frog, toad, and lizard diversity by uprooting trees and breaking branches (Nasseri et al. 2011)
    • Creates hiding places, hunting areas, and breeding habitats for small animals and their prey (Nasseri et al. 2011)
  • Frog tadpoles can live in water-filled elephant footprints (Remmers et al. 2017)
• Birds
  • Elephant browsing, trampling, etc. creates more mixed vegetation, which provides more habitats for birds (Francis et al. 2020; Kamga et al. 2022)
    • Contributes to bird diversity in certain habitats, such as some shrublands (Vaccaro and Schulte 2024)
  • Some birds feed on skin parasites of elephants (like ticks) or ride on backs of elephants, using a high perch to look for insects and small animal prey (Rice 1963; Ruggiero and Eves 1998; Eltringham 2000)
  • Elephants flush prey from vegetation (Rice 1963; Ruggiero and Eves 1998)
    • Birds snatch insects when elephants tear branches from trees/bushes
  • Vultures—which commonly live alongside savanna elephants in protected areas—may not breed successfully where elephants damage their nesting trees (Rushworth et al. 2018)
    • When elephant impacts are high, vultures may avoid areas where elephants live and damage/kill their nesting trees (Monadjem and Garcelon 2005; Vogel et al. 2014)

Walking

• Adults generally walk (McKay 1973)
  • Only run when fleeing danger or charging
  • Move legs on same side of body, even at higher speeds (Hutchinson et al. 2003; Hutchinson et al. 2006)
    • Left hind, left front; right hind, right front (Hutchinson et al. 2006)

• Basic gait
  • 3 feet on the ground most of the time
  • At least 1 foot always on ground
  • Body has a rolling motion and head bobs during fast walk

• Speed
  • Slow walk
    • About 0.5 kph (0.3 mph) or slower (Ngene et al. 2010; Chamaillé‐Jammes et al. 2014; Troup et al. 2020)
      • When eating, resting, socializing in one location (Ngene et al. 2010)
    • 2 to 3 kph (1 to 2 mph) (Hutchinson 2006)
      • When shifting between resource patches
  • Faster walk
    • 6 to 8 kph (4 to 5 mph) (Estes 2012)

“Running”

• Unusual hybrid gait for moving fast (Hutchinson et al. 2003 in Asian elephant)
  • Legs support bouncing motion, and joints bend more as speed increases (Hutchinson et al. 2003; Hutchinson et al. 2006)
• Primarily increase speed by taking more strides (Hutchinson et al. 2006; Estes 2012)
• Maximum speed
  • Up to about 26 kph (16 mph) (Hutchinson et al. 2003; Ngene et al. 2010; Estes 2012)

Jumping

• Cannot jump (Estes 2012)
• Have difficulty crossing some ditches/trenches
  • Generally unable to cross gaps wider than about 2 m (7 ft)

Other postures

• Able to kneel, squat, roll, and sit on haunches (eg, when getting up and lying down) (Estes 2012; Poole et al. 2013)
• Can balance on back legs to reach browse up high (Estes 2012)

Elephant calf playing in the mud.

Image credit: © San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance. All rights reserved.